叶绿体中光反应与暗反应在空间和能量上如何衔接？
How are light and dark reactions of chloroplasts connected in space and energy?
光反应在类囊体膜上把光能转化为 ATP 和 NADPH 并裂解水放氧，暗反应在基质中利用这两种物质将 CO2 固定为糖类；二者通过质子梯度和能量载体耦合。
Light reactions in the thylakoid membrane convert light to ATP and NADPH and split water releasing oxygen; the dark reactions in the stroma use these to fix CO2 into sugars, the two stages coupled by proton gradients and energy carriers.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-10-04
来源 · Source
《生物化学》教材
Lehninger Biochemistry
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 ISBN 978-1-319-45541-5 (8th ed., Macmillan Learning)
#叶绿体 #光反应 #暗反应
一个受精卵为什么能发育成有肌肉、神经和皮肤的复杂身体？干细胞在其中扮演什么角色？
How can a single fertilized egg develop into a complex body with muscle, nerves and skin? What role do stem cells play?
受精卵是最全能的“干细胞”，它反复分裂并逐渐“决定”命运：在分裂和发育中，不同的细胞开启不同的基因、关闭另一些基因，通过转录因子和表观遗传修饰固定各自的表达模式，于是分化成神经、肌肉、皮肤等两百多种细胞。成体干细胞则负责日常更新，比如造血干细胞每天产生数以千亿计的血细胞。分化方向的“锁定”使成体细胞难以互换，这是组织再生和移植中的核心难题。
The fertilized egg is the ultimate totipotent stem cell. As it divides and develops, different cells switch on some genes and silence others; transcription factors and epigenetic modifications lock in each cell's expression pattern, driving differentiation into over two hundred cell types such as neurons, muscle and skin. Adult stem cells handle routine renewal, with bone-marrow stem cells, for instance, producing on the order of a hundred billion blood cells every day. Because differentiation locks cells into their fates, adult cells can hardly swap identities, which is the central challenge in tissue regeneration and transplantation.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-04
来源 · Source
《How does a fertilized egg develop?》,Nature Reports Stem Cells,2007 (DOI: 10.1038/stemcells.2007.13)
'How does a fertilized egg develop?', Nature Reports Stem Cells, 2007, DOI: 10.1038/stemcells.2007.13
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 Crossref DOI 10.1038/stemcells.2007.13；Nature Reports St
#干细胞 #分化 #表观遗传
过氧化物酶体为何是细胞活性氧代谢的关键场所？
Why are peroxisomes key sites of cellular reactive oxygen species metabolism?
过氧化物酶体通过氧化酶反应产生过氧化氢等活性氧，并含过氧化氢酶将其分解为水，参与脂肪酸 β 氧化和解毒；功能缺陷会导致脑白质营养不良等疾病。
Peroxisomes generate reactive oxygen species such as H2O2 via oxidase reactions and contain catalase to decompose it, participating in fatty-acid beta-oxidation and detoxification; their defects cause leukodystrophies and other diseases.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 来源待核验 · Source pending review
来源 · Source
出处备注：此条未指向带版次的可引用著作（通识性内容、机构文件或未展开的英文书名），本库不提供独立书目出处；如需精确引用，需由编辑补全具体篇目与版次。
Annual Review of Cell Biology
Annual Review of Cell Biology
#过氧化物酶体 #活性氧 #解毒
细胞怎样用"泛素-蛋白酶体"系统清除坏掉或多余的蛋白质？
How does the ubiquitin–proteasome system tag and destroy damaged or surplus proteins?
细胞把泛素分子像标签一样共价连接到需要清除的蛋白质上，多聚泛素链被26S蛋白酶体识别并降解成小肽。这套系统清除错误折叠的蛋白、调控细胞周期蛋白，其失灵与帕金森病等多种神经退行性疾病有关。
Cells covalently attach ubiquitin molecules as tags to proteins marked for destruction; a poly-ubiquitin chain is recognized and degraded into peptides by the 26S proteasome. This system clears misfolded proteins and controls cell-cycle regulators, and its failure is linked to neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-03
来源 · Source
Ciechanover、Hershko 与 Rose（2004年诺贝尔化学奖）；综述见 Alberts 等《细胞的分子生物学》第6版
Ciechanover, Hershko & Rose (Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2004); reviewed in Alberts et al., Molecular Biology of the Cell (6th ed.)
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 OPENLIBRARY 标识 /works/OL16923011W：Molecular biology of t
#泛素 #蛋白酶体 #蛋白质降解 #质量控制
线粒体如何在细胞凋亡的调控中起核心作用？
How do mitochondria act centrally in regulating apoptosis?
凋亡信号使线粒体外膜通透化，细胞色素 c 释放到胞质并启动凋亡体，激活 caspase 级联导致程序性死亡；Bcl-2 家族蛋白决定膜的通透与否。
Apoptotic signals trigger mitochondrial outer-membrane permeabilization, releasing cytochrome c to assemble the apoptosome and activate the caspase cascade; Bcl-2 family proteins decide membrane permeability.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Alberts 等,《Molecular Biology of the Cell》第6版,Garland Science,2014
B. Alberts et al., Molecular Biology of the Cell, 6th ed., Garland Science, 2014
#凋亡 #线粒体 #caspase
细胞周期是如何被调控的？
How is the cell cycle regulated?
细胞周期由周期蛋白（cyclin）与周期蛋白依赖性激酶（CDK）组成的复合物推动，并受到检验点（如 G1/S、G2/M）监控。p53 等蛋白会在 DNA 损伤时叫停周期，直到修复或诱导凋亡，调控失常常导致癌症。
The cell cycle is driven by complexes of cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) and monitored by checkpoints such as G1/S and G2/M. Proteins like p53 halt the cycle upon DNA damage until repair or apoptosis is triggered, and loss of this control commonly leads to cancer.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-02
来源 · Source
《细胞生物学》
Molecular Biology of the Cell (Alberts)
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 ISBN 9787040321753（豆瓣书目条目: 细胞生物学）
#细胞周期 #周期蛋白 #CDK #p53 #检验点
细胞骨架由哪些成分组成，有什么功能？
What are the components of the cytoskeleton and what do they do?
细胞骨架由微管、肌动蛋白微丝和中间纤维三类蛋白质纤维构成，为细胞提供支撑并参与运动、物质运输和细胞分裂。微管还构成纤毛、鞭毛和纺锤体，驱动细胞形态改变与染色体分离。
The cytoskeleton is made of three protein-fiber systems, microtubules, actin microfilaments, and intermediate filaments, that give the cell support and drive movement, transport, and division. Microtubules also build cilia, flagella, and the spindle that segregates chromosomes.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-02
来源 · Source
《细胞生物学》
Molecular Biology of the Cell (Alberts)
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 ISBN 9787040321753（豆瓣书目条目: 细胞生物学）
#细胞骨架 #微管 #微丝 #中间纤维
什么是细胞信号传导？
What is cell signaling?
细胞通过表面受体接收激素、神经等化学信号，经内部通路把信息传给基因与机器，从而协调行为。
Cells receive chemical signals like hormones via surface receptors and pass the message inside through pathways to genes and machinery, coordinating behavior.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Alberts 等,《Molecular Biology of the Cell》第6版,Garland Science,2014
B. Alberts et al., Molecular Biology of the Cell, 6th ed., Garland Science, 2014
#信号传导 #受体 #通路
哺乳动物受精时卵子是如何阻止多个精子进入的？
How does a mammalian egg prevent more than one sperm from entering (polyspermy)?
精子先在女性生殖道中获能（capacitation），然后与卵子透明带的ZP3蛋白结合，触发顶体反应释放蛋白水解酶，消化透明带，使精子穿入并接触卵细胞膜。精子融合引发皮质反应：卵子皮质颗粒释放酶类（如ZP2被水解、透明带硬化），使其余精子无法再结合或穿过透明带，这是主要的多精阻断机制；同时卵细胞膜电位变化提供快阻断。多精受精会导致胚胎染色体异常和发育失败。受精还使卵子恢复减数分裂II、释放第二极体，合子的原核融合后开始卵裂。
Sperm undergo capacitation in the female reproductive tract, then bind ZP3 of the zona pellucida, triggering the acrosome reaction: hydrolytic enzymes digest the zona, allowing the sperm to penetrate and contact the oocyte membrane. Sperm fusion triggers the cortical reaction: enzymes released from cortical granules harden the zona (e.g., ZP2 cleavage) so other sperm can no longer bind or pass through; this is the main slow block to polyspermy, with a rapid block from a change in membrane potential. Polyspermy causes chromosomal abnormalities and failed development. Fertilization also resumes meiosis II and expels the second polar body; after pronuclear fusion, cleavage begins.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23 · 2 条独立证据
来源 · Source
翟中和 王喜忠 丁明孝,《细胞生物学》第4版,高等教育出版社,2011
Zhai Zhonghe et al., Cell Biology, 4th ed., Higher Education Press, 2011
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 2 ISBN 9787040321753（豆瓣书目条目: 细胞生物学）
#受精 #顶体反应 #皮质反应
减数分裂和有丝分裂有什么关键区别？为什么产生精子和卵子必须靠减数分裂？
What are the key differences between meiosis and mitosis, and why must sperm and eggs be made by meiosis?
有丝分裂只分裂一次，把复制好的染色体平均分给两个与母细胞相同的二倍体子细胞，用于生长和修复。减数分裂则连续分裂两次：第一次分裂时同源染色体配对并发生交叉互换，把等位基因重新洗牌，然后成对分开；第二次分裂时姐妹染色单体分开，最终产生四个染色体数目减半的单倍体细胞。只有单倍体的精子和卵子结合才能恢复二倍体，既使染色体数目代代恒定，交叉互换和染色体的随机分配又同时创造了遗传多样性。
Mitosis is one division that gives two diploid daughter cells identical to the parent, serving growth and repair. Meiosis divides twice: in the first division, homologous chromosomes pair, swap segments by crossing over (reshuffling alleles), and then separate; in the second, sister chromatids separate, yielding four haploid cells with half the chromosome number. Only when a haploid sperm fuses with a haploid egg is the diploid number restored, keeping the chromosome count constant across generations, while crossing over and the random assortment of chromosomes generate genetic variety.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23 · 2 条独立证据
来源 · Source
翟中和 王喜忠 丁明孝,《细胞生物学》第4版,高等教育出版社,2011
Zhai Zhonghe et al., Cell Biology, 4th ed., Higher Education Press, 2011
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 2 ISBN 9787040321753（豆瓣书目条目: 细胞生物学）
#减数分裂 #同源染色体 #交叉互换
同源异形基因（Hox基因）是如何控制动物身体前后轴形态建成的？
How do Hox genes control patterning along the anterior-posterior axis of animals?
Hox基因编码一类含同源框（homeobox）的转录因子，在几乎所有后生动物中成簇排列，染色体上的基因顺序对应其在身体前后轴的表达区域（共线性）：靠近5'端的基因在身体后部表达，3'端的基因在前部表达。它们像区域身份卡，决定每个体节发育出何种结构。突变会使结构出现在错误位置，如果蝇Antennapedia突变让头部该长触角的位置长出腿、Bithorax突变使第三胸节长出第二对翅。Hox基因从果蝇到哺乳动物高度保守，其复制和变异推动了动物体型的演化。
Hox genes encode homeobox-containing transcription factors that are clustered in nearly all metazoans, with their order on the chromosome mirroring their expression domains along the body axis (collinearity): genes at the 5' end are expressed posteriorly, those at the 3' end anteriorly. They act as regional identity cards, specifying what each segment develops into. Mutations place structures in the wrong positions, e.g., the Drosophila Antennapedia mutant grows legs on the head where antennae should be, and Bithorax produces a second pair of wings on the third thoracic segment. Hox genes are highly conserved from flies to mammals, and their duplications and modifications have driven the evolution of animal body plans.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Alberts 等,《Molecular Biology of the Cell》第6版,Garland Science,2014
B. Alberts et al., Molecular Biology of the Cell, 6th ed., Garland Science, 2014
#Hox基因 #同源异形基因 #形态建成
完全变态昆虫的幼虫-蛹-成虫转变是如何由激素调控的？
How is the larva-to-pupa-to-adult transition of holometabolous insects controlled by hormones?
昆虫脑中的神经分泌细胞分泌促前胸腺激素（PTTH），刺激前胸腺释放蜕皮激素（ecdysone），启动每一次蜕皮。同时，咽侧体（corpora allata）分泌保幼激素（JH）。蜕皮的结果取决于JH浓度：幼虫期JH高，蜕皮后仍是幼虫；末龄幼虫JH下降，蜕皮进入蛹期；JH消失时，蛹蜕皮羽化为成虫。保幼激素类似物（如甲氧普烯methoprene）或蜕皮激素类杀虫剂（如甲氧虫酰肼，为蜕皮激素受体激动剂）可破坏这一调控，被用作昆虫生长调节型杀虫剂，对变态过程敏感的害虫高效而对哺乳动物毒性低。
Neurosecretory cells in the insect brain release prothoracicotropic hormone (PTTH), which stimulates the prothoracic gland to secrete ecdysone and trigger each molt. Meanwhile, the corpora allata produce juvenile hormone (JH). The outcome of each molt depends on JH concentration: with high JH the larva molts into another larval instar; when JH drops in the final instar, molting produces a pupa; when JH is essentially absent, the pupa molts into the adult. Juvenile hormone analogs (e.g., methoprene) or ecdysone-agonist insecticides (e.g., methoxyfenozide, an ecdysone receptor agonist) disrupt this regulation and are used as insect growth regulators, effective against metamorphosing pests with low mammalian toxicity.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-02
来源 · Source
《动物学》(刘凌云、郑光美) 昆虫生理
Zoology (Liu Lingyun & Zheng Guangmei), insect physiology
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 ISBN 9787807410614（豆瓣书目条目: 动物学）
#完全变态 #蜕皮激素 #保幼激素
为什么说线粒体拥有自己的DNA？这说明什么？
Why does the mitochondrion have its own DNA, and what does it suggest?
线粒体拥有环状的线粒体DNA，能自我部分复制，这支持内共生学说——线粒体起源于被远古真核细胞吞入的细菌。
Mitochondria carry their own circular DNA and partly self-replicate, supporting the endosymbiotic theory that they originated from bacteria engulfed by ancestral eukaryotes.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Alberts 等,《Molecular Biology of the Cell》第6版,Garland Science,2014
B. Alberts et al., Molecular Biology of the Cell, 6th ed., Garland Science, 2014
#线粒体DNA #内共生 #演化
什么是细胞凋亡，它和细胞坏死有何不同？
What is apoptosis, and how does it differ from necrosis?
细胞凋亡是由基因调控的、有序的「程序性死亡」，细胞会收缩、碎裂成被邻近细胞清理的小体，不引发炎症。坏死则是外伤、中毒等导致的被动、无序死亡，常伴随内容物外泄和炎症反应。凋亡对发育和组织更新不可或缺。
Apoptosis is a genetically programmed, orderly form of cell death in which the cell shrinks and breaks into fragments cleared by neighbors without causing inflammation. Necrosis is passive, disordered death from injury or toxins, often leaking contents and triggering inflammation. Apoptosis is essential for development and tissue renewal.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-02
来源 · Source
《细胞生物学》
Molecular Biology of the Cell (Alberts)
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 ISBN 9787040321753（豆瓣书目条目: 细胞生物学）
#细胞凋亡 #程序性死亡 #坏死 #发育
细胞分裂时，那卷 DNA 是怎么被“平均”分给两个子细胞的？
When a cell divides, how is the long DNA molecule split “evenly” between the two daughter cells?
秘密在于“先复制、再平分”。分裂前 DNA 先完整复制一遍，每份染色体的两条姐妹染色单体由着丝粒连在一起。分裂时纺锤丝把姐妹染色单体拉开，分别移向细胞两极，细胞才一分为二。这样每个子细胞都拿到一套与母细胞一模一样的完整基因组。
The trick is “copy first, then split.” Before division, the DNA is fully replicated so each chromosome consists of two sister chromatids joined at the centromere. During division, spindle fibers pull the sister chromatids apart toward opposite poles, and only then does the cell pinch in two. Each daughter cell ends up with a complete genome identical to the parent's.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23 · 2 条独立证据
来源 · Source
翟中和 王喜忠 丁明孝,《细胞生物学》第4版,高等教育出版社,2011
Zhai Zhonghe et al., Cell Biology, 4th ed., Higher Education Press, 2011
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 2 ISBN 9787040321753（豆瓣书目条目: 细胞生物学）
#有丝分裂 #姐妹染色单体 #纺锤丝
细胞骨架是什么，它怎样像"内部轨道"运送物质？
What is the cytoskeleton, and how does it act like internal railway tracks?
细胞骨架由微管、微丝和中间丝组成，既维持细胞形状，也充当"内部轨道"。微管由微管蛋白聚合而成，驱动蛋白与动力蛋白沿其移动，把囊泡和细胞器（如线粒体）运送到细胞各处。
The cytoskeleton—microtubules, actin filaments, and intermediate filaments—both maintains cell shape and serves as internal "railways." Microtubules built from tubulin are tracks along which motor proteins such as kinesin and dynein carry vesicles and organelles like mitochondria to destinations throughout the cell.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-03
来源 · Source
Alberts 等，《细胞的分子生物学》（第6版，Garland Science，2014）
Alberts et al., Molecular Biology of the Cell (6th ed., Garland Science, 2014)
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 OPENLIBRARY 标识 /works/OL7938488W：Molecular Biology of th
#细胞骨架 #微管 #胞内运输 #马达蛋白
细胞膜的主要作用是什么？
What is the main function of the cell membrane?
细胞膜像一道有选择性的门，控制物质进出细胞，并维持细胞内部环境稳定。
The cell membrane acts as a selective gate, controlling what enters and leaves and keeping the cell's interior stable.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Alberts 等,《Molecular Biology of the Cell》第6版,Garland Science,2014
B. Alberts et al., Molecular Biology of the Cell, 6th ed., Garland Science, 2014
#细胞膜 #选择透过性
溶酶体是做什么的？
What do lysosomes do?
溶酶体像细胞里的“回收站”，用酶分解衰老细胞器和入侵的颗粒，回收有用材料。
Lysosomes are the cell's 'recycling center,' using enzymes to break down old organelles and invaders and reuse the materials.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Alberts 等,《Molecular Biology of the Cell》第6版,Garland Science,2014
B. Alberts et al., Molecular Biology of the Cell, 6th ed., Garland Science, 2014
#溶酶体 #消化 #回收
细胞之间是怎么“对话”的？
How do cells "talk" to each other?
细胞通过信号分子对话。一个细胞分泌化学信号（如激素、神经递质），信号分子与目标细胞表面的受体蛋白结合，受体把信息传入细胞内部，经过一连串分子反应逐级放大，最终改变细胞的基因表达或行为。例如胰岛素通知肌肉和脂肪细胞摄取葡萄糖，神经递质让下一个神经元兴奋或抑制。
Cells talk through signaling molecules. One cell releases a chemical signal such as a hormone or neurotransmitter; the molecule docks onto a receptor protein on the target cell's surface, and the receptor relays the message inside, where a cascade of molecular reactions amplifies it and finally changes gene expression or behavior. Insulin, for example, tells muscle and fat cells to take up glucose, while neurotransmitters excite or inhibit the next neuron.
难度 进阶 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 来源待核验 · Source pending review
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出处备注：此条未指向带版次的可引用著作（通识性内容、机构文件或未展开的英文书名），本库不提供独立书目出处；如需精确引用，需由编辑补全具体篇目与版次。
Khan Academy（细胞通讯）
Khan Academy (cell communication)
#信号分子 #受体 #信号转导
细胞膜的「流动镶嵌模型」说的是什么？
What does the fluid mosaic model of the cell membrane describe?
流动镶嵌模型认为细胞膜是以磷脂双分子层为骨架、膜蛋白像拼图一样镶嵌或漂浮其中的动态结构。磷脂的疏水尾朝内、亲水头朝外，膜既有流动性又具有选择透过性，控制物质进出细胞。
The fluid mosaic model depicts the membrane as a dynamic structure with a phospholipid bilayer backbone, in which proteins are embedded or float like pieces of a mosaic. Hydrophobic tails face inward and hydrophilic heads outward, giving the membrane both fluidity and selective permeability to control what enters and leaves.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-02
来源 · Source
《细胞生物学》
Molecular Biology of the Cell (Alberts)
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 ISBN 9787040321753（豆瓣书目条目: 细胞生物学）
#细胞膜 #流动镶嵌模型 #磷脂双分子层 #选择透过性
DNA 是怎么“复制”出一份一模一样的副本的？
How does DNA make an exact copy of itself?
DNA 是双螺旋，复制是“半保留”的：解旋酶先把两条链像拉链一样解开，DNA 聚合酶再沿着每条旧链逐个配上互补的碱基，合成两条新链。结果每个新 DNA 分子都含一条旧链和一条新链，碱基配对规则（A对T、C对G）保证了序列准确无误。
DNA is a double helix, and replication is “semiconservative”: helicase unzips the two strands, then DNA polymerase walks along each old strand adding complementary bases to build two new strands. Each new DNA molecule therefore holds one old and one new strand, and the base-pairing rules (A with T, C with G) keep the sequence accurate.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23 · 2 条独立证据
来源 · Source
翟中和 王喜忠 丁明孝,《细胞生物学》第4版,高等教育出版社,2011
Zhai Zhonghe et al., Cell Biology, 4th ed., Higher Education Press, 2011
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 2 ISBN 9787040321753（豆瓣书目条目: 细胞生物学）
#DNA复制 #半保留 #DNA聚合酶
胚胎的原肠胚时期形成的三个胚层分别分化出哪些器官？
What organs do the three germ layers formed during gastrulation give rise to?
原肠作用形成的外胚层将来发育为神经系统（脑、脊髓、外周神经）以及皮肤的表皮和毛发、指甲等附属结构；中胚层形成肌肉、骨骼、软骨、循环系统（心脏、血管、血液）、肾脏、生殖腺和结缔组织；内胚层形成消化道和呼吸道的上皮，以及肝、胰、甲状腺等腺体。三胚层的建立是一切器官形态发生的基础。
The ectoderm formed during gastrulation gives rise to the nervous system (brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves) and the epidermis of the skin with its appendages such as hair and nails. The mesoderm produces muscle, bone, cartilage, the circulatory system (heart, vessels, blood), kidneys, gonads, and connective tissue. The endoderm forms the epithelia of the digestive and respiratory tracts plus glands such as the liver, pancreas, and thyroid. The establishment of the three germ layers underlies all organogenesis.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-03
来源 · Source
《普通生物学》(陈阅增) 发育生物学章节
General Biology (Chen Yuezeng), developmental biology
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 ISBN 9787040583151（豆瓣书目条目: 陈阅增普通生物学）
#原肠胚 #三胚层 #器官发生
内质网如何保证新合成蛋白质的正确折叠？
How does the endoplasmic reticulum ensure correct folding of newly made proteins?
内质网腔含分子伴侣和折叠酶帮助蛋白折叠，未正确折叠的蛋白被识别并通过 ER 相关降解送回胞质降解，防止错误蛋白进入分泌途径。
The ER lumen harbors chaperones and foldases that assist folding; misfolded proteins are recognized and routed via ER-associated degradation back to the cytosol for destruction, preventing faulty proteins entering secretion.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Alberts 等,《Molecular Biology of the Cell》第6版,Garland Science,2014
B. Alberts et al., Molecular Biology of the Cell, 6th ed., Garland Science, 2014
#内质网 #分子伴侣 #蛋白质折叠
为什么癌细胞会“停不下来”地分裂？
Why do cancer cells keep dividing without stopping?
正常细胞受三道闸门约束：细胞周期检查点、接触抑制和程序性死亡（凋亡）。癌细胞的这些控制机制因基因突变而失灵——促进分裂的原癌基因过度活跃，抑制分裂的抑癌基因（如 p53）失活，于是细胞无视损伤信号持续分裂，还能骗过免疫系统并长出新血管供养自己，甚至扩散到其他器官形成转移。
Normal cells are kept in check by three gateways: cell-cycle checkpoints, contact inhibition, and programmed cell death (apoptosis). In cancer cells, mutations disable these controls: proto-oncogenes that promote division become overactive, while tumor-suppressor genes such as p53 are knocked out. The cell then divides relentlessly, ignores damage signals, dodges the immune system, grows its own blood supply, and can spread to other organs as metastasis.
难度 进阶 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Alberts 等,《Molecular Biology of the Cell》第6版,Garland Science,2014
B. Alberts et al., Molecular Biology of the Cell, 6th ed., Garland Science, 2014
#癌细胞 #抑癌基因 #凋亡
什么是干细胞的多能性？全能干细胞和多能干细胞有什么区别？
What is stem-cell potency, and how do totipotent and pluripotent stem cells differ?
干细胞是能自我更新并分化为特定细胞类型的未分化细胞。全能干细胞（如受精卵和早期卵裂球）能发育成一个完整个体，包括胚胎和胎盘等胚外组织；多能干细胞（如内细胞团来源的胚胎干细胞和诱导多能干细胞iPSC）能分化为三胚层的各种细胞，但不能形成胎盘。成体干细胞（如造血干细胞、神经干细胞）通常为多能或单能，负责组织的日常更新和损伤修复。iPSC技术（山中伸弥，2006）使体细胞重新编程为多能干细胞，为再生医学提供重要工具。
Stem cells are undifferentiated cells able to self-renew and differentiate into specific cell types. Totipotent cells (zygote, early blastomeres) can form a whole organism, including the embryo and extraembryonic tissues such as the placenta; pluripotent cells (embryonic stem cells from the inner cell mass, and induced pluripotent stem cells, iPSCs) can differentiate into all cell types of the three germ layers but not the placenta. Adult stem cells (e.g., hematopoietic or neural stem cells) are usually multipotent or unipotent, supporting daily renewal and repair. iPSC technology (Yamanaka, 2006) reprograms somatic cells to pluripotency and is a major tool for regenerative medicine.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Alberts 等,《Molecular Biology of the Cell》第6版,Garland Science,2014
B. Alberts et al., Molecular Biology of the Cell, 6th ed., Garland Science, 2014
#干细胞 #多能性 #诱导多能干细胞
内质网和高尔基体在细胞中如何协作？
How do the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus work together?
粗面内质网上的核糖体合成蛋白质后，内质网对其进行折叠和初步修饰，再以囊泡运往高尔基体。高尔基体进一步加工、分类并打包这些分子，送往细胞膜、溶酶体或分泌到细胞外。
After ribosomes on the rough ER synthesize proteins, the ER folds and initially modifies them, then ships them in vesicles to the Golgi apparatus. The Golgi further processes, sorts, and packages the molecules for delivery to the membrane, lysosomes, or secretion outside the cell.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-02
来源 · Source
《细胞生物学》
Molecular Biology of the Cell (Alberts)
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 ISBN 9787040321753（豆瓣书目条目: 细胞生物学）
#内质网 #高尔基体 #蛋白质加工 #囊泡
溶酶体通过自噬在细胞稳态中起什么作用？
What role do lysosomes play in homeostasis via autophagy?
溶酶体含多种水解酶，通过自噬包裹并降解受损细胞器和蛋白聚集体，回收分子用于重建，既维持细胞质质量又在营养缺乏时代谢供能。
Lysosomes contain hydrolytic enzymes that, via autophagy, engulf and degrade damaged organelles and protein aggregates, recycling molecules for rebuilding and providing metabolites during nutrient starvation.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Alberts 等,《Molecular Biology of the Cell》第6版,Garland Science,2014
B. Alberts et al., Molecular Biology of the Cell, 6th ed., Garland Science, 2014
#溶酶体 #自噬 #降解
细胞周期的"检查点"如何阻止受损细胞继续分裂？
How do cell-cycle checkpoints prevent damaged cells from dividing?
细胞周期在G1、G2和M期设有检查点，由p53、CDK/周期蛋白等监控蛋白检测DNA损伤与复制状态。若损伤无法修复，检查点会暂停周期甚至启动凋亡，防止带缺陷的细胞继续分裂——p53失活在多种癌症中常见。
Checkpoints at the G1, G2, and M phases use surveillance proteins such as p53 and CDK/cyclin complexes to assess DNA damage and replication status. If damage is irreparable they halt the cycle or trigger apoptosis, blocking flawed cells from dividing—p53 inactivation is common in many cancers.
难度 进阶 · 适合 小学高段(9-12)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-03
来源 · Source
Hartwell、Hunt 与 Nurse（2001年诺贝尔生理学或医学奖）；综述见 Alberts 等《细胞的分子生物学》第6版
Hartwell, Hunt & Nurse (Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2001); reviewed in Alberts et al., Molecular Biology of the Cell (6th ed.)
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 OPENLIBRARY 标识 /works/OL7938488W：Molecular Biology of th
#细胞周期 #检查点 #p53 #细胞凋亡
原核细胞和真核细胞最主要的区别是什么？
What is the main difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?
原核细胞（如细菌）没有由膜包裹的细胞核，DNA 游离在细胞质中；真核细胞（如动植物细胞）拥有真正的细胞核及多种膜包细胞器。真核细胞一般更复杂、体积更大，是动物、植物、真菌和原生生物的基本组成。
Prokaryotic cells such as bacteria lack a membrane-bound nucleus, with DNA free in the cytoplasm, whereas eukaryotic cells have a true nucleus and various membrane-enclosed organelles. Eukaryotes are generally more complex and larger, forming animals, plants, fungi, and protists.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-02
来源 · Source
《细胞生物学》
Molecular Biology of the Cell (Alberts)
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 ISBN 9787040321753（豆瓣书目条目: 细胞生物学）
#原核生物 #真核生物 #细胞核 #细胞器
内共生学说认为线粒体起源于什么？
What does the endosymbiotic theory say mitochondria originated from?
该学说认为线粒体源自被早期真核细胞吞入的需氧细菌，双方形成互利关系；线粒体的双层膜、自身环状 DNA 和与原细菌相似的核糖体都是证据。
The theory holds that mitochondria arose from aerobic bacteria engulfed by early eukaryotic cells in a mutualistic relationship; evidence includes their double membrane, own circular DNA and bacteria-like ribosomes.
难度 进阶 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-02
来源 · Source
《细胞生物学》教材
Molecular Biology of the Cell (Alberts)
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 ISBN 9787040321753（豆瓣书目条目: 细胞生物学）
#内共生 #线粒体 #进化
青蛙从蝌蚪发育为成蛙的变态过程受什么激素调控？
Which hormone drives the metamorphosis of a tadpole into a frog?
蝌蚪在水中生活，用鳃呼吸、以尾游泳；变态时鳃和尾退化，四肢长出，肺发育，呼吸方式转为肺和皮肤，角质层增厚以适应陆地生活。甲状腺分泌的甲状腺素（T3、T4）是启动和驱动变态的关键激素：摘除甲状腺的蝌蚪无法变态，会长成巨型蝌蚪；补充甲状腺素则能提前诱导变态。不同组织对甲状腺素的敏感性差异决定了变态时序（如尾先退化、四肢后长出）。
Tadpoles live in water, breathing with gills and swimming with a tail. During metamorphosis the gills and tail regress, limbs and lungs develop, respiration shifts to lungs and skin, and the integument thickens for terrestrial life. Thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) from the thyroid gland initiate and drive metamorphosis: a thyroidectomized tadpole never metamorphoses and becomes a giant tadpole, while thyroid hormone administration induces precocious metamorphosis. Differential tissue sensitivity to thyroid hormone sets the sequence, with the tail regressing before the limbs develop.
难度 进阶 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-03
来源 · Source
《普通生物学》(陈阅增) 发育章节
General Biology (Chen Yuezeng), amphibian metamorphosis
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 ISBN 9787040583151（豆瓣书目条目: 陈阅增普通生物学）
#变态发育 #甲状腺素 #蝌蚪
线粒体为什么被称为细胞的「动力工厂」？
Why is the mitochondrion called the cell's power plant?
线粒体通过有氧呼吸的电子传递链和氧化磷酸化，把葡萄糖等营养物质中的化学能转化为细胞可直接使用的 ATP。它拥有自己的 DNA，且普遍认为起源于被真核细胞吞噬的古老细菌（内共生学说）。
Mitochondria convert the chemical energy in nutrients such as glucose into ATP that the cell can use directly, via the electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation. They carry their own DNA and are widely thought to descend from ancient bacteria engulfed by early eukaryotic cells (endosymbiotic theory).
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-02
来源 · Source
《细胞生物学》
Molecular Biology of the Cell (Alberts)
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 ISBN 9787040321753（豆瓣书目条目: 细胞生物学）
#线粒体 #ATP #有氧呼吸 #内共生
细胞核里装着什么？
What is inside the cell nucleus?
细胞核是细胞的“控制室”，里面装着DNA，指挥细胞该制造什么、何时分裂。
The nucleus is the cell's 'control room' holding DNA, which directs what to build and when to divide.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Alberts 等,《Molecular Biology of the Cell》第6版,Garland Science,2014
B. Alberts et al., Molecular Biology of the Cell, 6th ed., Garland Science, 2014
#细胞核 #DNA #控制
细胞壁和细胞膜是一回事吗？
Are the cell wall and cell membrane the same thing?
不是。细胞膜是所有细胞都有的一层薄膜；细胞壁是植物、细菌和真菌外面额外的坚硬支撑层。
No. The membrane is a thin layer all cells have; the wall is an extra rigid support layer outside plant, bacterial, and fungal cells.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Alberts 等,《Molecular Biology of the Cell》第6版,Garland Science,2014
B. Alberts et al., Molecular Biology of the Cell, 6th ed., Garland Science, 2014
#细胞壁 #细胞膜 #支撑
植物细胞和动物细胞有什么主要区别？
What are the main differences between plant and animal cells?
植物细胞有细胞壁、叶绿体和中央大液泡，而动物细胞没有细胞壁和叶绿体，但有中心体。
Plant cells have a cell wall, chloroplasts, and a large central vacuole; animal cells lack these but have centrioles.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Alberts 等,《Molecular Biology of the Cell》第6版,Garland Science,2014
B. Alberts et al., Molecular Biology of the Cell, 6th ed., Garland Science, 2014
#植物细胞 #动物细胞 #对比
高尔基体在蛋白质分泌路径中负责什么？
What does the Golgi apparatus do in the protein secretion pathway?
高尔基体接收内质网送来的蛋白质，进行糖基化修饰、分类和包装，再以囊泡将成品送往细胞膜分泌或送往溶酶体等目的地。
The Golgi receives proteins from the ER, modifies them (e.g. glycosylation), sorts and packages them into vesicles that deliver finished products to the membrane for secretion or to destinations like lysosomes.
难度 进阶 · 适合 小学低段(6-8)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-02
来源 · Source
《细胞生物学》教材
Molecular Biology of the Cell (Alberts)
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 ISBN 9787040321753（豆瓣书目条目: 细胞生物学）
#高尔基体 #分泌 #糖基化
有丝分裂的作用是什么？
What is the purpose of mitosis?
有丝分裂把一套染色体精确复制并平均分给两个子细胞，使子细胞与母细胞拥有相同的遗传信息。它是多细胞生物生长、组织修复和单细胞生物无性繁殖的基础，保证了遗传的稳定性。
Mitosis duplicates one set of chromosomes and divides them equally between two daughter cells, giving each the same genetic information as the parent. It underlies growth, tissue repair in multicellular organisms, and asexual reproduction in single-celled ones, preserving genetic stability.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-02
来源 · Source
《细胞生物学》
Molecular Biology of the Cell (Alberts)
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 ISBN 9787040321753（豆瓣书目条目: 细胞生物学）
#有丝分裂 #染色体 #细胞分裂 #遗传稳定
受精卵是如何通过卵裂发育成囊胚的？
How does a fertilized egg develop into a blastocyst through cleavage?
受精后，合子经多次有丝分裂（卵裂），细胞数量增加而总体积几乎不增，细胞越分越小（卵裂球）。约16细胞期称为桑葚胚，继续分裂后细胞围成中空的球形，即囊胚（哺乳动物称胚泡），中间为充满液体的囊胚腔。哺乳动物囊胚的外层滋养层将参与形成胎盘，内细胞团则发育为胚胎本身，这些细胞具有多能性。
After fertilization, the zygote undergoes repeated mitotic divisions (cleavage) in which cell number increases while total volume barely grows, so the cells, the blastomeres, become smaller. At about the 16-cell stage the embryo is a morula; further division produces a hollow ball, the blastula (called blastocyst in mammals), with a fluid-filled blastocoel. In the mammalian blastocyst the outer trophoblast will contribute to the placenta, while the inner cell mass develops into the embryo proper, and these cells are pluripotent.
难度 进阶 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Alberts 等,《Molecular Biology of the Cell》第6版,Garland Science,2014
B. Alberts et al., Molecular Biology of the Cell, 6th ed., Garland Science, 2014
#卵裂 #桑葚胚 #囊胚
细菌是只有一个细胞的生物吗？
Is a bacterium made of just one cell?
是的，细菌是单细胞生物，一个细胞就能独立完成全部生命活动。
Yes, bacteria are single-celled organisms; one cell carries out all life activities on its own.
难度 入门 · 适合 小学低段(6-8)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Alberts 等,《Molecular Biology of the Cell》第6版,Garland Science,2014
B. Alberts et al., Molecular Biology of the Cell, 6th ed., Garland Science, 2014
#细菌 #单细胞
细胞里的核糖体是干什么的？
What do ribosomes do inside a cell?
核糖体是细胞里的小工厂，按照mRNA上的指令把氨基酸一个一个连起来，组装成蛋白质。它们有的漂在细胞质里，有的附着在内质网上，是所有细胞（包括细菌）都有的必备结构。
Ribosomes are tiny factories inside cells that read the instructions on mRNA and link amino acids one by one to build proteins. Some float freely in the cytoplasm while others sit on the endoplasmic reticulum, and they are found in every cell, including bacteria.
难度 入门 · 适合 幼儿(3-6)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-03
来源 · Source
Alberts 等，《细胞的分子生物学》（第6版，Garland Science，2014）
Alberts et al., Molecular Biology of the Cell (6th ed., Garland Science, 2014)
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 OPENLIBRARY 标识 /works/OL7938488W：Molecular Biology of th
#核糖体 #蛋白质合成 #mRNA
为什么说细胞是生命活动的基本单位？
Why is the cell called the basic unit of life?
细胞是能独立进行新陈代谢、生长和繁殖的最小结构单位，所有已知生物都由细胞组成（病毒除外，它必须借助细胞才能复制）。无论是单细胞生物还是多细胞生物，生命活动都建立在细胞的基础之上。
The cell is the smallest structural unit that can independently carry out metabolism, growth, and reproduction, and all known living things are made of cells (viruses being the exception, since they need a cell to replicate). Whether an organism is single-celled or multicellular, life is built on cells.
难度 入门 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-02
来源 · Source
《细胞生物学》
Molecular Biology of the Cell (Alberts)
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 ISBN 9787040321753（豆瓣书目条目: 细胞生物学）
#细胞 #基本单位 #新陈代谢 #结构
核仁的主要功能是什么？
What is the main function of the nucleolus?
核仁是细胞核内无膜包被的区域，负责核糖体 RNA 的转录、加工以及核糖体亚基的组装，是细胞蛋白质合成机器的生产车间。
The nucleolus is a membrane-less nuclear region that transcribes and processes ribosomal RNA and assembles ribosomal subunits—the production site of the cell's protein-synthesis machinery.
难度 入门 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Alberts 等,《Molecular Biology of the Cell》第6版,Garland Science,2014
B. Alberts et al., Molecular Biology of the Cell, 6th ed., Garland Science, 2014
#核仁 #rRNA #核糖体
细胞是什么？
What is a cell?
细胞是生物体的基本结构和功能单位，所有生物都由一个或多个细胞组成。
A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of living things; all organisms are made of one or more cells.
难度 入门 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Alberts 等,《Molecular Biology of the Cell》第6版,Garland Science,2014
B. Alberts et al., Molecular Biology of the Cell, 6th ed., Garland Science, 2014
#细胞 #生命单元
植物的叶子为什么通常是绿色的？
Why are plant leaves usually green?
叶子里的叶绿体含有叶绿素，它能吸收阳光用来制造养分，而叶绿素偏偏把绿光反射出来，所以我们看到的叶子是绿色的。叶绿体就像植物的小太阳能工厂，把阳光、水和二氧化碳变成糖和氧气。
Leaf cells contain chloroplasts with chlorophyll, which absorbs sunlight to make food but reflects green light, so leaves look green to us. Chloroplasts act like tiny solar factories, turning sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide into sugar and oxygen.
难度 入门 · 适合 幼儿(3-6)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-02
来源 · Source
《植物学》
Campbell Biology
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 ISBN 9787040581683（豆瓣书目条目: 植物学）
#叶绿体 #叶绿素 #光合作用 #绿色