锂离子电池热失控的链式反应通常包括哪几个放热阶段？
What exothermic stages typically make up the chain reaction of lithium-ion battery thermal runaway?
热失控通常始于 SEI 膜在约 80–120 摄氏度分解，随后负极与电解液反应、正极释氧并与电解液剧烈氧化，放热迅速抬升温度并引燃可燃气体。链式放热一旦越过临界点便自我维持，因此电池包依赖热隔离、泄压阀与热管理来阻断传播。
Thermal runaway usually begins with SEI decomposition around 80–120 °C, followed by anode-electrolyte reactions and cathode oxygen release driving violent oxidation with the electrolyte, rapidly raising temperature and igniting flammable gases. Once past the critical point the exothermic chain is self-sustaining, so packs rely on thermal isolation, pressure relief, and thermal management to stop propagation.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 来源待核验 · Source pending review
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出处备注：此条未指向带版次的可引用著作（通识性内容、机构文件或未展开的英文书名），本库不提供独立书目出处；如需精确引用，需由编辑补全具体篇目与版次。
Nature Energy（锂电池热失控机理）
Nature Energy (lithium battery thermal runaway mechanisms)
#热失控 #SEI 分解 #链式放热 #电池安全
全固态电池相比传统液态锂离子电池，在界面阻抗上面临什么核心难题？
What is the core challenge of interfacial resistance that solid-state batteries face versus conventional liquid-electrolyte lithium-ion cells?
固态电池的固-固界面接触差、离子在电极与电解质间的迁移阻力大，导致界面阻抗远高于液态体系，并使倍率性能受限。解决思路包括引入超薄缓冲层、调控界面化学以及用硫化物等更高离子电导的电解质，但仍难兼顾稳定性与量产一致性。
Solid-state cells suffer from poor solid-solid contact and large ion-migration resistance at electrode-electrolyte interfaces, giving far higher interfacial impedance than liquid systems and limiting rate capability. Approaches include ultrathin interlayers, interface chemistry control, and higher-conductivity sulfide electrolytes, but balancing stability with manufacturing consistency remains hard.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 来源待核验 · Source pending review
来源 · Source
出处备注：此条未指向带版次的可引用著作（通识性内容、机构文件或未展开的英文书名），本库不提供独立书目出处；如需精确引用，需由编辑补全具体篇目与版次。
Nature Energy（固态电池界面）
Nature Energy (solid-state battery interfaces)
#全固态电池 #界面阻抗 #固态电解质 #离子电导
高压气态、低温液态和金属氢化物三种储氢方式，在体积密度与安全上各有什么权衡？
What are the trade-offs in volumetric density and safety among compressed gas, cryogenic liquid, and metal-hydride hydrogen storage?
高压气态（70 MPa）储氢体积密度有限且需厚重耐压容器；低温液态体积密度高但液化能耗大、存在蒸发损失；金属氢化物体积密度高且安全（常温常压吸附），但质量储氢密度低、吸放氢伴随显著热效应，制约车载应用。
Compressed gas at 70 MPa has limited volumetric density and needs heavy pressure vessels; cryogenic liquid is dense but energy-intensive to liquefy and suffers boil-off; metal hydrides are dense and safe at ambient conditions but have low gravimetric capacity and strong heat effects during absorption/desorption, limiting vehicular use.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23 · 2 条独立证据
来源 · Source
陈敏恒 丛德滋 方图南 等 编,《化工原理》第3版,化学工业出版社,2006
Chen Minheng et al., Chemical Engineering Principles, 3rd ed., Chemical Industry Press, 2006
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 2 ISBN 9787502582517（豆瓣书目条目: 化工原理）
#储氢 #高压气态 #液态储氢 #金属氢化物
液流电池为何被认为特别适合大规模、长时储能？
Why are flow batteries considered especially suited to large-scale, long-duration energy storage?
液流电池把能量储存在外部电解液罐中，功率由电堆决定、容量由电解液体积决定，二者可独立扩展。因此储能时长只需增加电解液即可延长，且不易发生热失控，循环寿命长、安全性高，适合电网级调峰与可再生能源平抑。
Flow batteries store energy in external electrolyte tanks, with power set by the stack and capacity by the electrolyte volume, which scale independently. Storage duration is extended simply by adding electrolyte, with low thermal-runaway risk, long cycle life, and high safety, suiting grid peaking and renewable smoothing.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 来源待核验 · Source pending review
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出处备注：此条未指向带版次的可引用著作（通识性内容、机构文件或未展开的英文书名），本库不提供独立书目出处；如需精确引用，需由编辑补全具体篇目与版次。
Nature Energy（大规模储能技术）
Nature Energy (large-scale storage technologies)
#液流电池 #长时储能 #功率容量解耦 #电网
质子交换膜（PEM）电解水制氢相比碱性电解槽有哪些突出特点？
What are the distinguishing features of proton exchange membrane (PEM) water electrolysis compared with alkaline electrolyzers?
PEM 电解槽用固体聚合物膜传导质子，可在高电流密度下运行，动态响应快、启停迅速，适合配合波动性可再生能源。但其依赖铱、铂等贵金属催化剂且成本较高，而碱性电解槽虽便宜却响应慢、效率略低。
A PEM electrolyzer uses a solid polymer membrane to conduct protons, allowing high current density, fast dynamic response, and quick start-stop, well suited to fluctuating renewables. However it relies on precious-metal catalysts such as iridium and platinum and is more costly, whereas alkaline electrolyzers are cheaper but slower and slightly less efficient.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 来源待核验 · Source pending review
来源 · Source
出处备注：此条未指向带版次的可引用著作（通识性内容、机构文件或未展开的英文书名），本库不提供独立书目出处；如需精确引用，需由编辑补全具体篇目与版次。
Nature Energy（电解水制氢技术）
Nature Energy (water electrolysis for hydrogen)
#PEM 电解 #质子交换膜 #绿氢 #催化剂
绿氢、灰氢、蓝氢是按什么标准区分的？
On what basis are green, grey, and blue hydrogen distinguished?
区分标准是制取氢气时所用能源与碳排放。灰氢来自化石燃料重整且碳排放不回收；蓝氢同样来自化石能源但配套碳捕集利用与封存（CCUS）；绿氢则由可再生电力电解水制得、全程近零碳排放。颜色标签本质反映的是碳足迹而非氢气本身的化学性质。
The distinction is based on the energy source and carbon emissions of production. Grey hydrogen comes from fossil reforming with no capture, blue hydrogen also from fossil sources but paired with carbon capture, utilization and storage, and green hydrogen is made by electrolyzing water with renewable electricity at near-zero emissions. The color labels reflect carbon footprint, not the chemistry of the hydrogen itself.
难度 进阶 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 来源待核验 · Source pending review
来源 · Source
出处备注：此条未指向带版次的可引用著作（通识性内容、机构文件或未展开的英文书名），本库不提供独立书目出处；如需精确引用，需由编辑补全具体篇目与版次。
Nature Energy（氢能供应链与碳排放）
Nature Energy (hydrogen supply chain and emissions)
#绿氢 #灰氢 #蓝氢 #碳足迹
质子交换膜燃料电池（PEMFC）把氢气转化为电能时，关键的输运过程有哪些？
In a proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC), what are the key transport processes that convert hydrogen to electricity?
氢气在阳极催化分解为质子和电子，质子穿过膜到达阴极，电子则经外电路做功；阴极处质子、电子与氧气结合生成水。整个过程依赖膜的水管理、气体扩散与催化剂活性，任何一侧的水淹或干涸都会显著降低输出功率。
At the anode hydrogen splits into protons and electrons; protons cross the membrane to the cathode while electrons do work through the external circuit; at the cathode protons, electrons, and oxygen combine into water. The process depends on membrane water management, gas diffusion, and catalyst activity, and flooding or drying on either side sharply reduces output.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 来源待核验 · Source pending review
来源 · Source
出处备注：此条未指向带版次的可引用著作（通识性内容、机构文件或未展开的英文书名），本库不提供独立书目出处；如需精确引用，需由编辑补全具体篇目与版次。
Journal of The Electrochemical Society（燃料电池输运）
Journal of The Electrochemical Society (fuel cell transport)
#燃料电池 #质子交换膜 #电催化 #水管理
超级电容器和锂离子电池在能量与功率特性上有什么根本差异？
What is the fundamental difference in energy and power characteristics between supercapacitors and lithium-ion batteries?
超级电容器靠电极表面的双电层或快速氧化还原储能，充放电极快、循环寿命可达百万次，但单位质量储能少。锂离子电池靠缓慢的体相化学反应储能，能量密度高却功率密度低、循环寿命较短。二者常互补用于需要瞬间大功率又需长续航的系统。
Supercapacitors store energy at the electrode surface via the double layer or fast redox, charging extremely fast with up to a million cycles but low energy per mass. Lithium-ion cells store energy through slower bulk chemical reactions, giving high energy density but lower power density and shorter cycle life. The two are often complementary where both burst power and long range are needed.
难度 进阶 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 来源待核验 · Source pending review
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出处备注：著录仅给书名，无版次与年份；同一书名常对应多个版次，不臆测具体版本。
《材料科学》（电化学储能材料）
Materials Science (electrochemical energy storage materials)
#超级电容 #功率密度 #能量密度 #循环寿命