肿瘤的TNM分期在描述什么？
What does TNM cancer staging describe?
TNM是国际通用的实体肿瘤分期系统：T描述原发肿瘤的大小和侵犯深度，N描述区域淋巴结转移的范围，M表示有无远处转移。三者组合后归入I～IV期，分期越晚意味着病变范围越广、预后通常越差。它由国际抗癌联盟与美国癌症联合委员会维护并定期更新，是选择治疗方案、评估预后和比较不同研究结果的共同语言。
TNM is the internationally used staging system for solid tumours: T describes the size and local extent of the primary tumour, N the extent of regional lymph node involvement, and M whether distant metastases are present. The three are combined into stages I to IV, with later stages meaning wider disease and generally poorer prognosis. Maintained and periodically updated by the UICC and the AJCC, it is the shared language for choosing treatment, estimating outlook and comparing results across studies.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 来源待核验 · Source pending review
来源 · Source
出处备注：此条未指向带版次的可引用著作（通识性内容、机构文件或未展开的英文书名），本库不提供独立书目出处；如需精确引用，需由编辑补全具体篇目与版次。
国际抗癌联盟（UICC）TNM分期手册
UICC TNM Classification of Malignant Tumours
#TNM分期 #淋巴结转移 #远处转移 #预后评估
《癌症的标志》一文提出的『免疫逃逸』指什么？
What is 'immune evasion' in the Hallmarks of Cancer framework?
Hanahan 与 Weinberg 在 2011 年的更新版中指出，肿瘤除了无限增殖、促血管生成等特征，还会主动躲避免疫系统，例如下调抗原呈递、表达 PD-L1 抑制 T 细胞、或招募抑制性免疫细胞。理解这一点催生了免疫检查点抑制剂等疗法。
In their 2011 update, Hanahan and Weinberg listed immune evasion as a cancer hallmark: tumors actively dodge immunity by down-regulating antigen presentation, expressing PD-L1 to inhibit T cells, or recruiting suppressive immune cells. This insight spawned checkpoint-inhibitor therapies.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-04
来源 · Source
Hanahan 与 Weinberg《癌症的标志》(Cell, 2000)；Hanahan & Weinberg,《Hallmarks of Cancer: The Next Generation》,Cell,2011 (DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2011.02.013)
Hanahan & Weinberg, 'The Hallmarks of Cancer' (Cell, 2000); Hanahan & Weinberg, 'Hallmarks of Cancer: The Next Generation', Cell, 2011, DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2011.02.013
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 Crossref DOI 10.1016/j.cell.2011.02.013
#癌症的标志 #免疫逃逸 #PD-L1 #肿瘤微环境
p53 蛋白为什么被称为『基因组守护者』？
Why is p53 called the guardian of the genome?
p53 是一种转录因子，在 DNA 受损时被激活，可暂停细胞周期让损伤修复，或诱导不可逆损伤的细胞凋亡。超过半数人类肿瘤都带有 p53 基因突变，使其失去这道关键防线。
p53 is a transcription factor that, when DNA is damaged, halts the cell cycle to allow repair or triggers apoptosis of irreparably harmed cells. More than half of human tumors carry p53 mutations, removing this key safeguard.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-04
来源 · Source
Lane《p53, the guardian of the genome》(Nature, 1992)；Vogelstein 等《p53 与肿瘤》(Cell, 2000)
Lane, 'p53, guardian of the genome' (Nature, 1992); Vogelstein et al., 'p53 and human cancer' (Cell, 2000)
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 Crossref DOI 10.1038/358015a0
#p53 #基因组守护者 #细胞周期 #凋亡
端粒和端粒酶与癌症有什么关系？
How are telomeres and telomerase linked to cancer?
正常细胞每分裂一次端粒就缩短一点，终老而停止分裂；多数癌细胞重新激活端粒酶，维持端粒长度从而获得近乎无限的增殖能力。Blackburn、Greider 与 Szostak 因揭示端粒保护机制获 2009 年诺贝尔奖。
Normal cells lose a bit of telomere length with each division and eventually stop; most cancer cells reactivate telomerase to maintain telomeres and gain near-limitless division. Blackburn, Greider, and Szostak won the 2009 Nobel Prize for explaining telomere protection.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-03
来源 · Source
Blackburn、Greider 与 Szostak《端粒与端粒酶》(Nobel Lecture, 2009)；Shay 与 Wright《端粒在癌变中的作用》(Carcinogenesis, 2002)
Blackburn, Greider & Szostak, 'Telomeres and telomerase' (Nobel Lecture, 2009); Shay & Wright, 'Telomerase in cancer' (Carcinogenesis, 2002)
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 ARCHIVE 标识 telomerestelomer0191unse：Telomeres and telome
#端粒 #端粒酶 #细胞永生 #Blackburn
癌细胞为什么即便在富氧下也偏好糖酵解？这就是『Warburg 效应』吗？
Why do cancer cells prefer glycolysis even with oxygen—is that the Warburg effect?
Warburg 在 1920 年代观察到肿瘤细胞即使在有氧时也大量摄取葡萄糖并转为乳酸，称为有氧糖酵解。这虽产能效率低，却能快速供给生物合成所需的中间产物，并适应肿瘤缺氧微环境。
Warburg noted in the 1920s that tumor cells consume huge amounts of glucose and convert it to lactate even when oxygen is present—aerobic glycolysis. It is energetically inefficient but rapidly supplies biosynthetic intermediates and suits the hypoxic tumor milieu.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-04 · 2 条独立证据
来源 · Source
Warburg, O.,《On the Origin of Cancer Cells》, Science, 1956 (DOI: 10.1126/science.123.3191.309)；Vander Heiden, Cantley, Thompson,《Understanding the Warburg Effect: The Metabolic Requirements of Cell Proliferation》, Science, 2009 (DOI: 10.1126/science.1160809)
Warburg, O., 'On the Origin of Cancer Cells', Science, 1956, DOI: 10.1126/science.123.3191.309; Vander Heiden, Cantley, Thompson, 'Understanding the Warburg Effect: The Metabolic Requirements of Cell Proliferation', Science, 2009, DOI: 10.1126/science.1160809
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 Crossref DOI 10.1126/science.1160809 · 核验依据 2 Crossref DOI 10.1126/science.123.3191.309
#Warburg效应 #有氧糖酵解 #葡萄糖 #肿瘤代谢
肿瘤血管生成是什么，为什么它被称为癌症的标志之一？
What is tumor angiogenesis and why is it a cancer hallmark?
肿瘤长到一定体积后需要新血管供氧供养，于是分泌 VEGF 等因子促使周围血管长出新分支，这一过程由 Folkman 在 1971 年提出。阻断血管生成的『抗血管生成疗法』因此成为一类肿瘤治疗策略。
Once a tumor reaches a certain size it needs new vessels for oxygen and nutrients, so it secretes factors like VEGF to sprout new capillaries—a process Folkman described in 1971. Blocking this angiogenesis became a class of cancer therapy.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-03
来源 · Source
Folkman《肿瘤血管生成：治疗性阻滞》(NEJM, 1971)；Hanahan 与 Weinberg《癌症的标志》(Cell, 2000)
Folkman, 'Tumor angiogenesis: therapeutic implications' (NEJM, 1971); Hanahan & Weinberg, 'The Hallmarks of Cancer' (Cell, 2000)
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 EUROPEPMC 标识 4938153：Tumor angiogenesis: therapeutic imp
#血管生成 #VEGF #Folkman #抗血管生成
CAR-T 细胞疗法是如何让患者的 T 细胞去攻击肿瘤的？
How does CAR-T therapy turn a patient's own T cells into tumor attackers?
医生取出患者 T 细胞，用病毒载体导入编码嵌合抗原受体的基因，使 T 细胞表面长出能直接识别肿瘤抗原的『人造受体』，扩增后再回输体内。June 团队推动的这项技术对复发白血病和淋巴瘤展现出显著缓解，2017 年获 FDA 批准。
Clinicians harvest a patient's T cells, use a viral vector to insert a gene for a chimeric antigen receptor so the cells display an artificial receptor that recognizes tumor antigens, expand them, and infuse them back. June's team showed striking remissions in relapsed leukemia and lymphoma; the FDA approved it in 2017.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 来源待核验 · Source pending review
来源 · Source
出处备注：著录含书名，但缺版次 / 出版社 / 年份中的一部分，需编辑补全后才能做独立比对。
June 等《CAR-T 细胞治疗》(NEJM, 2018)；Kalos 等《靶向 CD19 的 CAR-T 治疗白血病》(Science Translational Medicine, 2011)
June et al., 'CAR T-cell therapy' (NEJM, 2018); Kalos et al., 'CD19-targeted CAR T cells in leukemia' (Sci Transl Med, 2011)
#CAR-T #嵌合抗原受体 #过继免疫 #June
放射治疗为什么要分成很多次照射？
Why is radiotherapy delivered in many small fractions?
分次照射利用了正常组织与肿瘤对放射损伤修复能力的差异：每次治疗间隔期间，正常细胞修复亚致死损伤的能力通常强于肿瘤细胞。分次还让肿瘤内缺氧区域在体积缩小后重新氧合，从而对射线更敏感，并让处于抗辐射细胞周期阶段的细胞重新分布到敏感阶段。因此常规方案多为每天1.8～2 Gy、持续数周，这样在杀灭肿瘤的同时把晚期毒性控制在可接受范围。
Fractionation exploits the difference between normal tissue and tumour in repairing radiation damage: between sessions, healthy cells generally repair sublethal injury better than cancer cells. Splitting the dose also lets hypoxic regions inside a shrinking tumour re-oxygenate and become more radiosensitive, and allows cells sitting in radioresistant phases of the cell cycle to redistribute into sensitive ones. Hence typical schedules of 1.8-2 Gy per day over several weeks, which kill tumour cells while keeping late toxicity acceptable.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-04
来源 · Source
Denekamp, McNally, Fowler, Joiner,《Misonidazole in fractionated radiotherapy: are many small fractions best?》,The British Journal of Radiology,1980 (DOI: 10.1259/0007-1285-53-634-981)
Denekamp, McNally, Fowler, Joiner, 'Misonidazole in fractionated radiotherapy: are many small fractions best?', The British Journal of Radiology, 1980, DOI: 10.1259/0007-1285-53-634-981
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 Crossref DOI 10.1259/0007-1285-53-634-981; Br J Radiol 5
#放射治疗 #分次照射 #再氧合 #晚期毒性
为什么癌症转移才是导致大多数患者死亡的原因？
Why does metastasis cause most cancer deaths?
原发肿瘤通常可被手术切除，但少数细胞会脱离、侵入血管或淋巴管，在远处器官定植并形成新病灶，使单一病灶变成系统性病害。转移需要完成上皮—间质转化、存活于循环、再定植等一系列艰难步骤，因而成为治疗难点。
Primary tumors are often removable, but a few cells detach, invade blood or lymph vessels, and colonize distant organs, turning one lesion into systemic disease. Metastasis demands epithelial-mesenchymal transition, survival in circulation, and re-colonization—a hard sequence that makes treatment difficult.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-03
来源 · Source
Valastyan 与 Weinberg《癌细胞转移的分子基础》(Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol, 2011)；Seyfried《癌症作为代谢病》(2012)
Valastyan & Weinberg, 'Molecular basis of metastasis' (Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol, 2011); Seyfried, 'Cancer as a Metabolic Disease' (2012)
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 OPENLIBRARY 标识 /works/OL21487177W：Cancer As a Metabolic
#转移 #上皮-间质转化 #循环存活 #远处定植
原癌基因和抑癌基因分别是如何推动细胞癌变的？
How do oncogenes and tumor-suppressor genes drive cancer?
原癌基因本是调控生长的『油门』，一旦被突变或扩增异常激活就变成致癌的癌基因；抑癌基因则是『刹车』（如 p53、Rb），一旦失活就失去约束增殖的能力。Bishop 与 Varmus 发现细胞癌基因源于正常原癌基因，获 1989 年诺贝尔奖。
Proto-oncogenes are the growth 'accelerator'; when mutated or amplified they become overactive oncogenes. Tumor suppressors are the 'brakes' (e.g., p53, Rb), and their inactivation removes proliferation control. Bishop and Varmus showed cellular oncogenes derive from normal proto-oncogenes, earning the 1989 Nobel Prize.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-03 · 2 条独立证据
来源 · Source
Bishop 与 Varmus《细胞癌基因》(Annual Review of Biochemistry, 1986)；Weinberg《癌生物学》(The Biology of Cancer)
Bishop & Varmus, 'Cellular oncogenes' (Ann. Rev. Biochem., 1986); Weinberg, 'The Biology of Cancer'
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 ISBN 9787030586193（豆瓣书目条目: 癌生物学）；本条出处含多部著作，此标识只担保上面点名的这部 · 核验依据 2 OPENLIBRARY 标识 /works/OL13665861W：The biology of cancer（
#原癌基因 #抑癌基因 #癌基因 #Rb
什么是肿瘤微环境，为什么它很重要？
What is the tumour microenvironment and why does it matter?
肿瘤不是一团纯粹的癌细胞，还包括被“驯化”的成纤维细胞、免疫细胞、新生血管、细胞外基质和它们分泌的各种因子，这个整体称为肿瘤微环境。它可以为癌细胞提供生长信号、诱导血管生成、制造缺氧和酸性环境，并通过免疫抑制细胞和检查点分子帮助肿瘤逃避免疫监视，还会阻碍药物渗透造成耐药。正因为如此，抗血管生成药和免疫检查点抑制剂等疗法针对的其实是微环境而非癌细胞本身。
A tumour is not a pure mass of cancer cells: it also contains co-opted fibroblasts, immune cells, newly formed vessels, extracellular matrix and the factors they secrete, together making up the tumour microenvironment. It supplies growth signals, drives angiogenesis, creates hypoxic and acidic conditions, and helps the tumour evade immune surveillance through suppressive cells and checkpoint molecules, while also hindering drug penetration and fostering resistance. That is why treatments such as anti-angiogenic drugs and immune checkpoint inhibitors actually target the microenvironment rather than the cancer cell itself.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-03
来源 · Source
Folkman《肿瘤血管生成：治疗性阻滞》(NEJM, 1971)；Hanahan 与 Weinberg《癌症的标志》(Cell, 2000)
Folkman, 'Tumor angiogenesis: therapeutic implications' (NEJM, 1971); Hanahan & Weinberg, 'The Hallmarks of Cancer' (Cell, 2000)
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 EUROPEPMC 标识 4938153：Tumor angiogenesis: therapeutic imp
#肿瘤微环境 #血管生成 #免疫逃逸 #耐药
化疗和放疗是怎样治疗癌症的？
How do chemotherapy and radiation treat cancer?
化疗用药物全身杀灭快速分裂的癌细胞，但也影响正常细胞故会引起脱发、恶心等副作用；放疗用高能射线局部照射肿瘤、破坏其 DNA。二者常联合手术或用于晚期控制。
Chemotherapy uses drugs to kill fast-dividing cancer cells throughout the body, but also affects normal cells, causing side effects like hair loss and nausea. Radiation uses high-energy rays to locally damage tumor DNA. Both are often combined with surgery or used for advanced control.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 来源待核验 · Source pending review
来源 · Source
出处备注：此条未指向带版次的可引用著作（通识性内容、机构文件或未展开的英文书名），本库不提供独立书目出处；如需精确引用，需由编辑补全具体篇目与版次。
美国国立综合癌症网络（NCCN）患者指南
National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN) Patient Guidelines
#化疗 #放疗 #癌症治疗
细胞凋亡失灵为何会让癌症得逞？
How does failed apoptosis let cancer succeed?
凋亡是细胞在受损或不再需要时有序自毁的程序；Kerr、Wyllie 与 Currie 在 1972 年定义这一概念。癌细胞常上调抗凋亡蛋白、下调促凋亡信号，从而逃过清除、持续存活并积累突变。
Apoptosis is the ordered self-destruction of damaged or unneeded cells, a concept Kerr, Wyllie, and Currie defined in 1972. Cancer cells often up-regulate anti-apoptotic proteins and silence pro-apoptotic signals, evading clearance and persisting with accumulating mutations.
难度 进阶 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-04
来源 · Source
Kerr, Wyllie & Currie,《Apoptosis: A Basic Biological Phenomenon with Wideranging Implications in Tissue Kinetics》,British Journal of Cancer,1972 (DOI: 10.1038/bjc.1972.33)；Hanahan 与 Weinberg《癌症的标志》(Cell, 2000)
Kerr, Wyllie & Currie, 'Apoptosis: A Basic Biological Phenomenon with Wideranging Implications in Tissue Kinetics', British Journal of Cancer, 1972, DOI: 10.1038/bjc.1972.33; Hanahan & Weinberg, 'The Hallmarks of Cancer' (Cell, 2000)
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 Crossref DOI 10.1038/bjc.1972.33
#凋亡 #程序性死亡 #抗凋亡 #清除
癌症本质上是什么？
What is cancer at its core?
癌症是一组因细胞 DNA 突变失控而异常增殖的疾病，可形成肿块并侵袭周围组织，还能经血液淋巴转移到远处（转移）。不同癌症的诱因、治疗和预后差异很大。
Cancer is a group of diseases where cells grow out of control due to DNA mutations, forming masses that invade nearby tissue and can spread through blood or lymph to distant sites (metastasis). Causes, treatments, and outcomes vary widely.
难度 进阶 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-04
来源 · Source
美国国家癌症研究所（NCI）「什么是癌症？」；Hanahan & Weinberg,《The Hallmarks of Cancer》,Cell,2000 (DOI: 10.1016/s0092-8674(00)81683-9)
U.S. National Cancer Institute (NCI), 'What Is Cancer?'; Hanahan & Weinberg, 'The Hallmarks of Cancer', Cell, 2000, DOI: 10.1016/s0092-8674(00)81683-9
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 Crossref DOI 10.1016/s0092-8674(00)81683-9
#癌症 #肿瘤 #转移
晚期癌症患者主诉持续性呼吸困难,在对原发疾病进行治疗之外,缓和医疗可以提供哪些药物与非药物干预来缓解这一症状?
An advanced cancer patient reports persistent breathlessness. Beyond treating the underlying disease, which pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions can palliative care offer to relieve this symptom?
低剂量阿片类药物是缓解难治性呼吸困难的一线用药,能够减轻呼吸窘迫感,短期规范使用不会导致有临床意义的二氧化碳潴留。非药物手段包括风扇送风刺激面部三叉神经分布区、调整体位、缩唇呼吸与放松训练,焦虑表现突出时可短程联用苯二氮䓬类药物。氧疗主要使存在低氧血症的患者获益,血氧正常的患者同样能从冷风对流中获得主观缓解。
Low-dose opioids are first-line for refractory dyspnea, easing the distress of breathlessness without clinically significant carbon dioxide retention when used appropriately in the short term. Non-pharmacological measures include a fan directing airflow onto the face, upright positioning, pursed-lip breathing and relaxation training, with short benzodiazepine courses reserved for prominent anxiety. Supplemental oxygen benefits chiefly hypoxemic patients, whereas cool moving air brings subjective relief even to those with normal saturation.
难度 进阶 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 来源待核验 · Source pending review
来源 · Source
出处备注：著录含书名，但缺版次 / 出版社 / 年份中的一部分，需编辑补全后才能做独立比对。
国家卫生计生委办公厅《安宁疗护实践指南(试行)》国卫办医发〔2017〕5号 ; 另见: NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology: Palliative Care, Version 2.2023, National Comprehensive Cancer Network
NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology: Palliative Care, Version 2.2023, National Comprehensive Cancer Network ; see also: 国家卫生计生委办公厅《安宁疗护实践指南(试行)》国卫办医发〔2017〕5号
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 ARCHIVE 标识 pubmed-PMC4053106：Impact of hormone receptor
#缓和医疗 #呼吸困难缓解策略
常见的癌症筛查手段有哪些？
What are common cancer screening methods?
常用筛查包括乳腺癌的钼靶（mammography）、宫颈癌的宫颈细胞学（TCT）/HPV 检测、结直肠癌的结肠镜、肺癌的低剂量 CT（高危人群）。筛查旨在早期发现、提高治愈率。
Common screenings include mammography for breast cancer, cervical cytology (Pap)/HPV testing for cervical cancer, colonoscopy for colorectal cancer, and low-dose CT (for high-risk people) for lung cancer. Screening aims for early detection and better cure rates.
难度 入门 · 适合 小学低段(6-8)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23 · 2 条独立证据
来源 · Source
万学红 陈红 主编,《诊断学》第9版,人民卫生出版社,2018
Wan Xuehong and Chen Hong eds., Diagnostics, 9th ed., PMPH, 2018
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 2 ISBN 9787117263740（豆瓣书目条目: 诊断学）
#癌症筛查 #早诊 #预防
化疗为什么常常会掉头发？
Why does chemotherapy often cause hair loss?
传统化疗药攻击的是快速分裂的细胞，而毛囊中的毛母质细胞分裂速度在人体内名列前茅，因此被“连带”损伤，生长期毛发脱落。同样的原理也解释了化疗引起口腔黏膜炎、恶心和白细胞下降。这类脱发通常是暂时的，疗程结束后数月内会重新长出，有时发质或卷曲度略有变化；部分方案可用头皮降温装置减轻脱发。
Conventional chemotherapy targets rapidly dividing cells, and the matrix cells in hair follicles are among the fastest dividers in the body, so they are hit as collateral damage and hairs in the growth phase fall out. The same principle explains chemotherapy-related mouth sores, nausea and low white cell counts. This hair loss is usually temporary, with regrowth within months after treatment ends - sometimes with a slightly different texture or curl - and scalp cooling can reduce it with some regimens.
难度 入门 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23 · 2 条独立证据
来源 · Source
杨宝峰 主编,《药理学》第9版,人民卫生出版社,2018
Yang Baofeng ed., Pharmacology, 9th ed., PMPH, 2018
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 2 ISBN 9787117266048（豆瓣书目条目: 药理学）
#化疗 #脱发 #毛囊 #快速分裂细胞
如何初步辨别可疑的皮肤痣？
How can you spot a suspicious skin mole?
可用「ABCDE」法则：Asymmetry（不对称）、Border（边缘不规则）、Color（颜色不均）、Diameter（直径多大于 6 毫米）、Evolution（近期变化）。任何快速变化的痣都应尽早看皮肤科。
Use the "ABCDE" rule: Asymmetry, irregular Border, uneven Color, Diameter over 6 mm, and Evolution (recent change). Any rapidly changing mole should be checked by a dermatologist early.
难度 入门 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23 · 2 条独立证据
来源 · Source
万学红 陈红 主编,《诊断学》第9版,人民卫生出版社,2018
Wan Xuehong and Chen Hong eds., Diagnostics, 9th ed., PMPH, 2018
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 2 ISBN 9787117263740（豆瓣书目条目: 诊断学）
#皮肤癌 #黑色素瘤 #痣