沃森的四卡问题为什么大多数人做错，换成社会情境却轻松通过？
Why do most people fail Wason's four-card task yet solve it easily in a social context?
抽象版任务要求检验若一面是元音则另一面是偶数这类条件规则，多数被试只翻验证性的卡片而忽略最关键的否定后件，反映出确认倾向和对逻辑蕴含的直觉误用。但如果把同一逻辑结构换成检查饮酒年龄这类社会契约情境，正确率会大幅上升。对此有两种主要解释：一是内容效应与熟悉度提供了可用的语义线索，二是进化心理学提出人类具备专门检测欺骗与违规者的推理机制。实验之所以重要，在于它显示推理表现高度依赖问题的表征方式，而非单纯的一般逻辑能力。
In the abstract version participants must test a conditional rule such as if one side shows a vowel then the other shows an even number, and most turn only the confirming card while neglecting the crucial potential falsifier, revealing a confirmation tendency and misuse of logical implication. Recast with the same logical structure as a social contract, such as checking a drinking-age rule, accuracy rises sharply. Two accounts compete: content effects and familiarity supply usable semantic cues, and evolutionary psychologists propose a specialised mechanism for detecting cheaters and rule violators. The task matters because it shows reasoning performance depends heavily on how a problem is represented rather than on general logical competence alone.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-04 · 2 条独立证据
来源 · Source
Wason（1968）《Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology》；Cosmides（1989）《Cognition》社会契约推理
Wason (1968), Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology; Cosmides (1989), Cognition, social contract reasoning
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 Crossref DOI 10.1080/14640746808400161 · 核验依据 2 Crossref DOI 10.1016/0010-0277(89)90023-1
#四卡问题 #确认偏误 #内容效应
双语者真的具有执行功能优势吗？这一主张为何存在争议？
Do bilinguals really have an executive function advantage, and why is the claim contested?
早期研究提出，双语者需要持续抑制非目标语言，这种日常训练会迁移到一般性的冲突监控与切换能力，并可能延缓痴呆症状出现。质疑来自多方面：大样本研究与预注册重复常未发现优势，早期文献存在显著结果更易发表的偏差，双语群体往往在移民背景、社会经济地位与教育经历上与单语群体不可比。目前较为审慎的看法是，双语在语言控制的特定任务上确有可测差异，但泛化到一般执行功能的强主张证据不足，认知储备方面的效应仍需更严格的纵向设计检验。
Early studies proposed that bilinguals must continuously suppress the non-target language, and that this daily practice transfers to general conflict monitoring and switching ability, perhaps delaying the onset of dementia symptoms. Doubts arose from several directions: large-sample studies and preregistered replications often find no advantage, the early literature shows bias toward publishing significant results, and bilingual samples typically differ from monolingual ones in immigration background, socioeconomic status, and schooling. The cautious current view is that measurable differences exist on specific language-control tasks, evidence for the strong generalisation to executive function is weak, and cognitive reserve effects need more rigorous longitudinal designs.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-04结论有争议 · Contested
来源 · Source
Bialystok 等（2012）《Trends in Cognitive Sciences》双语与认知；Paap 与 Greenberg（2013）《Cognitive Psychology》双语优势质疑研究
Bialystok et al. (2012), Trends in Cognitive Sciences, Bilingualism and cognition; Paap and Greenberg (2013), Cognitive Psychology, challenges to the bilingual advantage
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 Crossref DOI 10.1016/j.tics.2012.03.001
#双语优势 #执行功能 #发表偏差
认知负荷理论（Cognitive Load Theory）对教学设计有何启示？
What implications does Cognitive Load Theory have for instructional design?
认知负荷理论由 Sweller 于 1988 年提出，认为工作记忆容量有限，学习任务若占用过多“内在”或“外在”认知负荷会阻碍图式建构。有效教学应通过减少无关负荷、促进相关负荷来帮助学生形成长期记忆中的知识结构。
Proposed by Sweller in 1988, Cognitive Load Theory holds that working memory is limited, and tasks imposing excessive intrinsic or extraneous load hinder schema construction. Effective instruction reduces extraneous load and supports germane load to build knowledge structures in long-term memory.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-04
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Sweller, J.,《Cognitive Load During Problem Solving: Effects on Learning》, Cognitive Science, 1988 (DOI: 10.1207/s15516709cog1202_4)；Sweller 等《认知负荷理论手册》
Sweller, J., 'Cognitive Load During Problem Solving: Effects on Learning', Cognitive Science, 1988, DOI: 10.1207/s15516709cog1202_4; Sweller et al., Handbook of Cognitive Load Theory
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 Crossref DOI 10.1207/s15516709cog1202_4
#认知负荷理论 #工作记忆 #图式 #教学设计
面孔识别是否依赖专门的脑区？先天性面孔失认症提供了什么证据？
Does face recognition depend on a dedicated brain region, and what does developmental prosopagnosia show?
功能磁共振研究在颞下皮层发现纺锤状面孔区，它对面孔的反应显著强于其他物体，支持面孔加工具有专门机制的观点。反对者认为该区域反映的是对高度熟练类别的精细区分能力，例如鸟类专家看鸟、汽车迷看车时也会激活。先天性面孔失认症患者在没有明显脑损伤和智力问题的情况下终身难以识别面孔，却能正常辨认物体，而获得性病例则往往伴随该区域损伤；这类双向分离支持面孔加工在功能上相对独立，但专门化程度仍在争论。
Functional MRI identified a fusiform face area in inferior temporal cortex that responds far more strongly to faces than to other objects, supporting a dedicated face-processing mechanism. Critics argue the region reflects fine-grained discrimination within any highly practised category, since it also activates when bird experts view birds or car enthusiasts view cars. People with developmental prosopagnosia struggle lifelong to recognise faces despite no evident brain injury or intellectual impairment while identifying objects normally, and acquired cases typically involve damage to this region; such double dissociations support relative functional independence for face processing, though the degree of specialisation remains debated.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-04
来源 · Source
Kanwisher、McDermott 与 Chun（1997）《Journal of Neuroscience》纺锤状面孔区；Gauthier 等（2000）《Nature Neuroscience》专长假说
Kanwisher, McDermott and Chun (1997), Journal of Neuroscience, The fusiform face area; Gauthier et al. (2000), Nature Neuroscience, expertise account
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 Crossref DOI 10.1523/jneurosci.17-11-04302.1997（复合著录按段核验
#纺锤状面孔区 #面孔失认症 #功能特异性
认知负荷理论如何指导教学材料设计？
How does cognitive load theory guide the design of instructional materials?
该理论假定工作记忆容量有限，把负荷分为内在负荷、外在负荷与相关负荷：内在负荷取决于内容本身的复杂度，外在负荷来自糟糕的呈现方式，相关负荷则用于建构图式。设计原则由此推出，例如把图与对应文字放在一起以避免分散注意效应，删除装饰性插图以减少冗余，为新手提供完整的样例讲解而不是纯粹的问题求解。值得注意的是专长逆转效应：对已有图式的学习者，详尽指导反而成为多余负荷，此时应转向独立解题。
The theory assumes working memory is limited and distinguishes intrinsic load set by content complexity, extraneous load created by poor presentation, and germane load devoted to building schemas. Design rules follow: place diagrams next to their explanatory text to avoid the split-attention effect, strip decorative illustrations that add redundancy, and give novices fully worked examples rather than unguided problem solving. Notably, the expertise reversal effect means that for learners who already possess the relevant schema, detailed guidance becomes redundant load and practice should shift toward independent problem solving.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-03
来源 · Source
Sweller（1988）《Cognitive Science》认知负荷理论；Sweller、Ayres 与 Kalyuga《Cognitive Load Theory》（2011）
Sweller (1988), Cognitive Science; Sweller, Ayres and Kalyuga, Cognitive Load Theory (2011)
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 OPENLIBRARY 标识 /works/OL21308956W：Cognitive Load Theory（
#认知负荷 #分散注意效应 #样例效应
认知心理学中的“双过程理论”如何区分两类思维？
How do “dual-process theories” in cognitive psychology distinguish two kinds of thinking?
双过程理论将思维分为快速、自动、不费力且常凭直觉的“系统一（System 1）”与缓慢、需要努力和逻辑分析的“系统二（System 2）”。Stanovich 与 West 于 2000 年系统提出这一区分，Kahneman 在 2011 年的著作中将其普及并用于解释判断偏差。
Dual-process theories divide thinking into “System 1,” which is fast, automatic, effortless, and intuitive, and “System 2,” which is slow, effortful, and analytic. Stanovich and West systematically proposed the distinction in 2000, and Kahneman popularized it in 2011 to explain judgment biases.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-03
来源 · Source
Stanovich 与 West 2000 年论文（载 Behavioral and Brain Sciences）；Kahneman《思考，快与慢》（2011）
Stanovich & West (2000) in Behavioral and Brain Sciences; Kahneman, Thinking, Fast and Slow (2011)
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 OPENLIBRARY 标识 /works/OL15992072W：Thinking, Fast and Slo
#双过程理论 #系统一 #系统二 #启发式
为什么人会对没有实际因果关系的事件产生控制错觉？
Why do people develop an illusion of control over events they cannot actually influence?
兰格的实验显示，当彩票情境中加入选择号码、熟悉度、竞争对手或练习机会等本与结果无关的技能线索时，被试对中奖概率的主观估计明显上升。机制在于人们用技能情境的启发式来解读随机事件，同时倾向把成功归因于自身操作、把失败归因于外部干扰，从而维持了控制感。这一偏差在赌博行为、股票交易与迷信仪式中都有体现，适度的控制错觉与心理健康正相关，但在需要准确风险评估的场景中会造成系统性误判。
Langer's experiments showed that adding skill cues irrelevant to the outcome — choosing one's own lottery numbers, familiarity with the tickets, a visibly incompetent competitor, or practice trials — raised participants' subjective estimates of winning. The mechanism is that people apply heuristics from skill situations to interpret random events, while attributing successes to their own actions and failures to external interference, which preserves a sense of control. The bias appears in gambling, stock trading, and superstitious rituals; a moderate illusion of control correlates with psychological wellbeing, but it produces systematic misjudgement wherever accurate risk assessment matters.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-04
来源 · Source
Langer（1975）《Journal of Personality and Social Psychology》控制错觉；Thompson 等（1998）《Psychological Bulletin》控制错觉综述
Langer (1975), Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, The illusion of control; Thompson et al. (1998), Psychological Bulletin, review of illusory control
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 Crossref DOI 10.1037/0022-3514.32.2.311
#控制错觉 #归因偏差 #赌博行为
什么是“前瞻性记忆”？
What is prospective memory?
前瞻性记忆是记得在未来某个时刻执行计划好的行为，比如按时服药或赴约，与回想过去事件的回溯性记忆不同。它依赖大脑的执行功能与线索触发。
Prospective memory is remembering to perform an intended action at a future time, such as taking medicine or keeping an appointment, unlike retrospective memory which recalls past events. It depends on executive function and on cues that trigger the intention.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 来源待核验 · Source pending review
来源 · Source
出处备注：著录仅给书名，无版次与年份；同一书名常对应多个版次，不臆测具体版本。
《认知心理学》（斯滕伯格）
Cognitive Psychology (Sternberg)
#前瞻性记忆 #执行功能 #计划
什么是“心理旋转”实验？
What is the mental rotation experiment?
谢泼德和梅茨勒让被试判断两个三维物体是否相同，只是角度不同。反应时间随旋转角度线性增加，说明人在脑中像转动实物一样旋转心理图像。
Shepard and Metzler asked participants to judge whether two 3D objects were the same despite differing orientations. Reaction time increased linearly with rotation angle, suggesting people mentally rotate images much like turning a physical object.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 来源待核验 · Source pending review
来源 · Source
出处备注：著录仅给书名，无版次与年份；同一书名常对应多个版次，不臆测具体版本。
《认知心理学》（斯滕伯格）
Cognitive Psychology (Sternberg)
#心理旋转 #心理意象 #认知
斯特鲁普效应说明了什么样的加工冲突？为什么练习会削弱它？
What kind of processing conflict does the Stroop effect reveal, and why does practice weaken it?
当颜色词的字义与墨色不一致时，说出墨色的反应时明显变长、错误增多，因为熟练成人的阅读高度自动化，字义在无意图的情况下被激活，与需要努力控制的颜色命名任务竞争同一反应通道。这说明自动化加工难以随意关闭，冲突解决依赖前扣带皮层与前额叶的控制机制。若让被试反复练习颜色命名，或反过来削弱阅读的自动化程度，干扰量就会减小，这也是自动化程度可训练的证据。
When a colour word's meaning conflicts with its ink colour, naming the ink takes longer and produces more errors, because reading is highly automatic in skilled adults so word meaning is activated unintentionally and competes for the same response channel as the effortful colour-naming task. This shows automatic processing cannot simply be switched off, and that conflict resolution recruits control mechanisms in the anterior cingulate and prefrontal cortex. Extensive practice at colour naming — or conditions that reduce reading automaticity — shrinks the interference, evidence that automaticity itself is trainable.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-03
来源 · Source
Stroop（1935）《Journal of Experimental Psychology》；MacLeod（1991）《Psychological Bulletin》斯特鲁普效应半世纪回顾
Stroop (1935), Journal of Experimental Psychology; MacLeod (1991), Psychological Bulletin, half a century of research on the Stroop effect
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 OPENLIBRARY 标识 /works/OL8245431W：Half a century of resea
#斯特鲁普效应 #自动化加工 #认知控制
变化盲视实验为什么能颠覆我们对视觉经验的直觉？
Why do change blindness experiments overturn our intuitions about visual experience?
在西蒙斯与莱文的实地实验中，实验者向路人问路，途中两人抬着门板穿过，趁遮挡把对话者换成另一个人，约半数路人没有察觉。类似地，在图片渐变或闪烁遮挡范式中，画面里相当大的物体消失也常被忽略。这说明视觉系统并不维护一份完整的场景副本，而是按需把注意投向局部并即时提取信息，所谓丰富连续的视觉体验很大程度上是主观建构，而不是逐点存储的结果。
In Simons and Levin's field study an experimenter asked pedestrians for directions and, while two people carried a door between them, was swapped for a different person mid-conversation; roughly half the pedestrians never noticed. Similar failures occur in gradual-change and flicker paradigms, where sizeable objects vanish from a scene unremarked. The lesson is that vision does not maintain a complete internal copy of the world but directs attention locally and extracts information on demand, so our sense of a rich continuous visual experience is largely a construction rather than point-by-point storage.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-04
来源 · Source
Simons 与 Levin（1998）《Psychonomic Bulletin & Review》门实验；Rensink、O'Regan 与 Clark（1997）《Psychological Science》
Simons and Levin (1998), Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, the door study; Rensink, O'Regan and Clark (1997), Psychological Science
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 Crossref DOI 10.3758/bf03208840
#变化盲视 #注意 #视觉表征
为什么同样治好9成和“死1成”的药，大家接受度差那么多？
Why is a treatment described as 90 percent survive accepted far more than the same one called 10 percent die?
特沃斯基与卡尼曼的“框架效应”（Tversky & Kahneman, 1981）表明，决策随信息是“收益框架”还是“损失框架”而反转，哪怕客观结果相同。面对收益人们偏保守、面对损失偏冒险，这揭示偏好并不稳定，而被表述方式左右。
Tversky and Kahneman's framing effect (1981) shows choices flip depending on whether information is cast as gains or losses, even with identical outcomes. People turn risk-averse for gains and risk-seeking for losses, revealing that preferences are unstable and shaped by wording.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 来源待核验 · Source pending review
来源 · Source
出处备注：著录含书名，但缺版次 / 出版社 / 年份中的一部分，需编辑补全后才能做独立比对。
Tversky, A. & Kahneman, D. (1981)《选择的框架》, Science 211(4481):453-458
Tversky, A. & Kahneman, D. (1981). The framing of decisions and the psychology of choice. Science, 211(4481), 453-458.
#框架效应 #风险偏好 #表述
为什么专家在自己领域内的直觉判断有时非常可靠，有时又完全失灵？
Why is expert intuition sometimes highly reliable and sometimes completely unreliable?
克莱因研究消防指挥官等实务专家，发现他们能在数秒内识别情境模式并选出可行方案，依靠的是长期积累的模式库。卡尼曼则指出许多领域的专家预测并不优于简单统计规则。两人后来达成共识：直觉可靠需要两个条件，一是环境具有足够的规律性与可预测结构，二是从业者能通过长期实践获得及时且明确的反馈。棋类、消防与麻醉满足这些条件，而长期政治预测和股票选择则不满足，因此在低效度环境中应更多依赖形式化模型与检查清单。
Klein studied practitioners such as fireground commanders and found they recognise situational patterns within seconds and select a workable option, drawing on a large repertoire built over years. Kahneman countered that in many fields expert forecasts do not beat simple statistical rules. The two later converged on two conditions for trustworthy intuition: an environment with sufficient regularity and predictable structure, and an opportunity to learn it through prolonged practice with prompt, unambiguous feedback. Chess, firefighting, and anaesthesia meet these criteria while long-range political forecasting and stock picking do not, so in low-validity environments formal models and checklists should carry more weight.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-03
来源 · Source
Kahneman 与 Klein（2009）《American Psychologist》直觉专长的条件；Klein《Sources of Power》（1998）
Kahneman and Klein (2009), American Psychologist, Conditions for intuitive expertise; Klein, Sources of Power (1998)
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 OPENLIBRARY 标识 /works/OL2731587W：Sources of power（首版 199
#专家直觉 #识别启动决策 #低效度环境
为什么飞机刚出事，大家就吓得不敢飞，却照常开车？
Why, right after a plane crash, do people fear flying yet keep driving as usual?
特沃斯基与卡尼曼的启发式研究（Tversky & Kahneman, 1974）指出，我们用“易得性”判断概率：近期鲜活的事更容易被想起，于是显得更常见。同时“代表性”让人凭相似度误判，比如把罕见病当感冒——这两种快捷思考常偏离真实统计。
Tversky and Kahneman's heuristics work (1974) shows we judge probability by availability: recent vivid events come to mind easily and seem more common. The representativeness heuristic likewise misleads by similarity - e.g., mistaking a rare disease for a cold. Both mental shortcuts drift from true statistics.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 来源待核验 · Source pending review
来源 · Source
出处备注：著录含书名，但缺版次 / 出版社 / 年份中的一部分，需编辑补全后才能做独立比对。
Tversky, A. & Kahneman, D. (1974)《不确定性下的判断：启发与偏差》, Science 185(4157):1124-1131
Tversky, A. & Kahneman, D. (1974). Judgment under uncertainty: heuristics and biases. Science, 185(4157), 1124-1131.
#可得性启发 #代表性启发 #判断偏差
什么是“注意力盲视”？
What is inattentional blindness?
当人全神贯注于某项任务时，会完全忽略视野中明显但并不相关的刺激，西蒙斯和查布里斯用“看不见的大猩猩”实验证明了这一点。它说明注意是有选择性的，而非被动接收所有信息。
When people focus intently on one task, they can completely miss obvious but unrelated stimuli in view, as shown by Simons and Chabris in the 'invisible gorilla' experiment. It shows that attention is selective rather than passively receiving everything.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23 · 2 条独立证据
来源 · Source
Richard Gerrig Philip Zimbardo,《心理学与生活》第19版中译,人民邮电出版社,2016
R. J. Gerrig and P. G. Zimbardo, Psychology and Life, 19th ed., Chinese ed., Posts & Telecom Press, 2016
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 2 OPENLIBRARY 标识 /works/OL23493W：Psychology and life（按标题+作
#注意力盲视 #注意 #错觉
心理学中的“图式”是什么？
What is a schema in psychology?
图式是头脑中组织知识、帮助理解和预测世界的心理框架，由皮亚杰提出并在认知心理学中发展。它让我们快速处理信息，但也可能造成刻板印象与错觉。
A schema is a mental framework that organizes knowledge and helps us understand and predict the world, introduced by Piaget and developed in cognitive psychology. It lets us process information quickly but can also produce stereotypes and illusions.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 来源待核验 · Source pending review
来源 · Source
出处备注：著录仅给书名，无版次与年份；同一书名常对应多个版次，不臆测具体版本。
《认知心理学》（斯滕伯格）
Cognitive Psychology (Sternberg)
#图式 #认知结构 #皮亚杰
什么是元认知（metacognition）？
What is metacognition?
元认知是“关于认知的认知”，即人对自己思考过程的觉察与调控，比如估计自己是否学会了某内容、规划学习策略。有效的元认知能让人在卡住时及时调整方法。它是自主学习与专家表现的重要基石。
Metacognition is thinking about thinking: awareness and control of one's own mental processes, such as judging whether you have learned something and planning study strategies. Good metacognition lets you switch methods when stuck. It is a key foundation of self-directed learning and expert performance.
难度 进阶 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23 · 2 条独立证据
来源 · Source
Richard Gerrig Philip Zimbardo,《心理学与生活》第19版中译,人民邮电出版社,2016
R. J. Gerrig and P. G. Zimbardo, Psychology and Life, 19th ed., Chinese ed., Posts & Telecom Press, 2016
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 2 OPENLIBRARY 标识 /works/OL23493W：Psychology and life（按标题+作
#元认知 #自我调节 #学习
“斯特鲁普效应（Stroop effect）”说明了什么心理现象？
What psychological phenomenon does the “Stroop effect” demonstrate?
斯特鲁普效应指当颜色词本身的字面含义（如用红墨水写的“蓝”字）与印刷颜色不一致时，人们念出颜色的反应会变慢、错误增多。它揭示了自动化阅读过程会干扰需要有意控制的颜色命名任务，说明自动化加工与受控加工之间存在冲突。
The Stroop effect occurs when the ink color of a color word (e.g., the word “blue” printed in red) mismatches its meaning, slowing and error-prone color naming. It shows that automatic reading interferes with the controlled task of naming colors, illustrating conflict between automatic and controlled processing.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-04
来源 · Source
Stroop, J.R.,《Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions.》, Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1935 (DOI: 10.1037/h0054651)；Sternberg《认知心理学》
Stroop, J.R., 'Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions.', Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1935, DOI: 10.1037/h0054651; Sternberg, Cognitive Psychology
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 Crossref DOI 10.1037/h0054651
#斯特鲁普效应 #自动化加工 #注意冲突
什么是心理旋转（mental rotation）？
What is mental rotation?
心理旋转指人在脑中想象把物体旋转到某个角度来判断其形状或是否相同的过程。谢泼德的实验发现，判断两图形是否为同一物体所需的时间，随两者角度差增大而线性增加。这说明空间表象的加工类似于真实的物理旋转，需要时间与心智努力。
Mental rotation is imagining an object turned to some angle in order to judge its shape or whether two objects match. Shepard's experiments showed that the time to decide whether two figures are the same grows linearly with the angle between them. This suggests spatial imagery is processed like real physical rotation, requiring time and mental effort.
难度 进阶 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23 · 2 条独立证据
来源 · Source
Richard Gerrig Philip Zimbardo,《心理学与生活》第19版中译,人民邮电出版社,2016
R. J. Gerrig and P. G. Zimbardo, Psychology and Life, 19th ed., Chinese ed., Posts & Telecom Press, 2016
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 2 OPENLIBRARY 标识 /works/OL23493W：Psychology and life（按标题+作
#心理旋转 #表象 #空间认知
什么是工作记忆？它与短时记忆有何不同？
What is working memory, and how does it differ from short-term memory?
工作记忆是我们在进行复杂认知任务时，暂时存储并同时加工信息的系统，由巴德利等人提出。它比短时记忆更进一步，强调对信息的主动操控，而不仅仅是保持。其容量有限，通常只能同时处理少量信息。
Working memory is the system that temporarily stores and simultaneously manipulates information during complex cognitive tasks, as proposed by Baddeley and colleagues. It goes beyond short-term memory by emphasizing active manipulation rather than mere holding. Its capacity is limited and can only handle a small amount of information at once.
难度 进阶 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 来源待核验 · Source pending review
来源 · Source
出处备注：著录仅给书名，无版次与年份；同一书名常对应多个版次，不臆测具体版本。
《认知心理学》（斯滕伯格）
Cognitive Psychology (Sternberg)
#工作记忆 #短时记忆 #认知
心理学中的“元认知”指的是什么？
What does "metacognition" refer to in psychology?
元认知是个体对自己认知过程的觉察与调控，包括“知道我知道什么”的知识以及计划、监控和调节学习的能力。Flavell 于 1979 年系统提出该概念，它是自主学习与有效问题解决的重要基础。
Metacognition is awareness and regulation of one's own cognitive processes, including knowledge about what one knows and the ability to plan, monitor, and adjust learning. Flavell systematically introduced the concept in 1979, and it underlies self-regulated learning and effective problem solving.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-03
来源 · Source
Flavell 1979 年论文（载 American Psychologist）；Gerrig 与 Zimbardo《心理学与生活》
Flavell (1979) in American Psychologist; Gerrig & Zimbardo, Psychology and Life
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 OPENLIBRARY 标识 /works/OL23493W：Psychology and life（首版 19
#元认知 #自我调节学习 #监控
什么是“鸡尾酒会效应”？它反映了注意的什么特点？
What is the “cocktail party effect,” and what does it reveal about attention?
鸡尾酒会效应指人在喧闹环境中仍能专注于某一对话，却能在听到自己名字等显著性刺激时迅速转移注意。它由 Cherry 于 1953 年通过双耳分听实验发现，说明注意具有选择性，且对与自我相关的信息存在“泄漏”式加工。
The cocktail party effect is the ability to focus on one conversation in a noisy setting while still detecting salient stimuli such as one's own name. Cherry discovered it in 1953 via dichotic listening experiments, showing that attention is selective and allows “leaky” processing of self-relevant information.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-03
来源 · Source
Cherry 1953 年论文（载 Journal of the Acoustical Society of America）；Eysenck 与 Keane《认知心理学》
Cherry (1953) in Journal of the Acoustical Society of America; Eysenck & Keane, Cognitive Psychology
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 OPENLIBRARY 标识 /works/OL19207319W：Cognitive psychology（首
#鸡尾酒会效应 #选择性注意 #双耳分听
认知心理学中的“工作记忆模型”由哪几个子系统构成？
What subsystems make up the "working memory model" in cognitive psychology?
工作记忆模型由 Baddeley 与 Hitch 于 1974 年提出，认为短期记忆并非单一储存，而是包含中央执行系统、语音回路和视空间模板三个核心成分。后续修订又加入情景缓冲器，用于整合来自各子系统的信息。
Proposed by Baddeley and Hitch in 1974, the working memory model holds that short-term memory is not a single store but comprises a central executive, a phonological loop, and a visuospatial sketchpad. A later revision added the episodic buffer to integrate information from the subsystems.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-03
来源 · Source
Baddeley 与 Hitch 1974 年论文（载 Psychology of Learning and Motivation）及 Baddeley《工作记忆》（Working Memory, 1986）
Baddeley & Hitch (1974) in Psychology of Learning and Motivation; Baddeley, Working Memory (1986)
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 OPENLIBRARY 标识 /works/OL2690239W：Working memory（首版 1986）
#工作记忆 #中央执行系统 #语音回路 #视空间模板
为什么说短时记忆容量大约是“7±2”个项目？
Why is short-term memory capacity described as about '7±2' items?
米勒在1956年提出，人短时记忆可同时保持约5到9个独立信息块。这一发现奠定了工作记忆研究的基础，不过现代研究认为真实容量更接近4个左右。
Miller proposed in 1956 that short-term memory holds about 5 to 9 separate chunks of information. The finding laid the groundwork for working-memory research, though modern estimates put the true capacity closer to around 4.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23 · 2 条独立证据
来源 · Source
Richard Gerrig Philip Zimbardo,《心理学与生活》第19版中译,人民邮电出版社,2016
R. J. Gerrig and P. G. Zimbardo, Psychology and Life, 19th ed., Chinese ed., Posts & Telecom Press, 2016
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 2 OPENLIBRARY 标识 /works/OL23493W：Psychology and life（按标题+作
#短时记忆 #米勒 #容量
为什么手里拿着锤子，看什么都像钉子——旧经验怎么会卡住思路？
Why, with a hammer in hand, does everything look like a nail - how does old experience jam problem-solving?
卢钦斯的“心理定势”实验（Luchins, 1942）显示，被同一类解法训练后，人即使有更简单的办法也惯性沿用老路。邓克尔的“功能固着”（Duncker, 1945）进一步说明，我们常只看见物体的惯常用途而想不到新用法，于是被既有经验“焊死”了思路。
Luchins's mental-set experiments (1942) show that after training on one solution, people keep using it even when a simpler path exists. Duncker's functional fixedness (1945) adds that we see only an object's usual function and miss new uses, so prior experience welds the mind shut.
难度 入门 · 适合 小学低段(6-8)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-03
来源 · Source
Luchins, A.S. (1942)《问题解决中的机械化》, Psychological Monographs 54(6); Duncker, K. (1945)《论问题解决》
Luchins, A.S. (1942). Mechanization in problem solving. Psychological Monographs, 54(6); Duncker, K. (1945). On problem solving. In W.D. Ellis (Ed.), A Source Book of Gestalt Psychology.
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 OPENLIBRARY 标识 /works/OL183239W：A source book of gestalt
#心理定势 #功能固着 #问题解决
我们为什么会忘记刚才发生的事？
Why do we sometimes forget things that just happened?
人的记忆像一个暂时放东西的小架子，新东西放太多时，旧的就容易暂时找不到。大脑还需要时间把重要的事搬进能长期保存的地方。
Our memory is like a small shelf for temporarily holding things; when too many new things pile up, older ones can be hard to find for a while. The brain also needs time to move important things into long-term storage.
难度 入门 · 适合 幼儿(3-6)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23 · 2 条独立证据
来源 · Source
Richard Gerrig Philip Zimbardo,《心理学与生活》第19版中译,人民邮电出版社,2016
R. J. Gerrig and P. G. Zimbardo, Psychology and Life, 19th ed., Chinese ed., Posts & Telecom Press, 2016
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 2 OPENLIBRARY 标识 /works/OL23493W：Psychology and life（按标题+作
#记忆 #遗忘 #大脑