格兰诺维特（Granovetter）「弱关系的力量」如何解释求职与信息扩散？
How does Granovetter's strength of weak ties explain job search and information diffusion?
强关系（亲友）圈子高度重叠、信息冗余，而弱关系（泛交）桥接不同群体，带来新颖机会与信息。格兰诺维特据此发现多数人通过弱关系而非密友获得工作，弱关系是社交网络的「桥梁」。
Strong ties form redundant, overlapping circles, while weak ties bridge distinct groups and carry novel information. Granovetter found most people get jobs through weak rather than close ties, which act as bridges in networks.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-04
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Granovetter,《The Strength of Weak Ties》,American Journal of Sociology,1973 (DOI: 10.1086/225469)
Granovetter, 'The Strength of Weak Ties', American Journal of Sociology, 1973, DOI: 10.1086/225469
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 Crossref DOI 10.1086/225469
#弱关系 #社会网络 #求职
社会资本中「桥接型」（bridging）与「粘合型」（bonding）的区分有何政策含义？
What policy implications follow from distinguishing bridging versus bonding social capital?
粘合型资本强化群体内团结但可能排斥外人，桥接型资本连接异质群体、拓宽机会与信息。普特南指出，过度依赖粘合型资本会加深割裂，而培育桥接型资本更利于跨群体合作与减贫。
Bonding capital strengthens in-group ties but can exclude outsiders; bridging capital links heterogeneous groups, widening opportunity and information. Putnam notes over-reliance on bonding deepens division, while fostering bridging better supports cross-group cooperation and poverty reduction.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-10-03 · 2 条独立证据
来源 · Source
Putnam,《Bowling Alone》(2000)
Robert Putnam, Bowling Alone (2000)
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 2 OPENLIBRARY 标识 /works/OL4291077W：Bowling Alone（按标题+作者/年份
#社会资本 #桥接 #粘合 #普特南
什么是非正式制度？它如何补充或替代正式法律？
What are informal institutions, and how do they supplement or substitute for formal law?
非正式制度指不成文的习惯、信任规范与关系网络，如熟人社会的互惠规则。在正式法律缺位或执行成本高时，它们提供可预期的协作框架，有时也绕过正式制度形成「潜规则」。
Informal institutions are unwritten habits, trust norms, and networks, such as reciprocity in close-knit communities. Where formal law is absent or costly to enforce, they supply a predictable framework for coordination, though they can also substitute for law as hidden rules.
难度 进阶 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-02
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诺斯《制度、制度变迁与经济绩效》(1990)
Douglass North, Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance (1990)
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 OPENLIBRARY 标识 /works/OL2095641W：Institutions, instituti
#非正式制度 #规范 #社会网络
什么是外部性？请分别举一个正外部性与负外部性的例子。
What is an externality? Give one example each of a positive and a negative externality.
外部性是一方经济活动对无直接交易关系的第三方产生的影响。疫苗接种使他人也免于感染，是正外部性；工厂排污损害下游居民健康，是负外部性。
An externality is an effect of one party's economic activity on third parties with no direct transaction. Vaccination protects others from infection, a positive externality; a factory's pollution harms downstream residents' health, a negative one.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-02
来源 · Source
《经济学原理》(曼昆)（外部性章）
Principles of Economics (Mankiw), externalities chapter
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 ISBN 9787301312971（豆瓣书目条目: 经济学原理）
#外部性 #正外部性 #负外部性
格兰诺维特所说的经济行为「嵌入」社会网络是什么意思？
What does Granovetter mean by economic action being embedded in social networks?
嵌入性主张市场与交易并非发生在真空，而是根植于人际关系与信任之中。经济行为受社会纽带约束，信任降低交易成本，但也可能因关系封闭而排斥外人或滋生腐败。
Embeddedness holds that markets and transactions are not in a vacuum but rooted in personal relations and trust. Social ties constrain economic action and lower transaction costs, yet can also exclude outsiders or breed corruption through closure.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-04
来源 · Source
Granovetter,《Economic Action and Social Structure: The Problem of Embeddedness》,American Journal of Sociology,1985 (DOI: 10.1086/228311)
Granovetter, 'Economic Action and Social Structure: The Problem of Embeddedness', American Journal of Sociology, 1985, DOI: 10.1086/228311
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 Crossref DOI 10.1086/228311
#嵌入性 #社会网络 #经济社会学
什么是市场失灵？常见的类型有哪些？
What is market failure, and what are its common types?
市场失灵指自由市场无法有效配置资源，导致社会净福利损失。常见类型包括外部性、公共品供给不足、垄断与信息不对称。
Market failure occurs when free markets fail to allocate resources efficiently, reducing social net welfare. Common types are externalities, under-provision of public goods, monopoly, and information asymmetry.
难度 进阶 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-10-04
来源 · Source
Bator,《The Anatomy of Market Failure》(Quarterly Journal of Economics, 1958)
Francis Bator, 'The Anatomy of Market Failure' (Quarterly Journal of Economics, 1958)
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 DOI 10.2139/ssrn.2070
#市场失灵 #外部性 #公共品
什么是囚徒困境？它如何说明集体行动的难题？
What is the prisoner's dilemma, and how does it illustrate the problem of collective action?
囚徒困境是两个理性个体各自选择「背叛」虽为个体最优，却导致集体最差结局的博弈。它说明即便合作对所有人更有利，缺乏约束时个体仍有动机搭便车，这正是集体行动困境的核心。
The prisoner's dilemma is a game where each rational player's dominant choice, to defect, yields a worse collective outcome than mutual cooperation. It shows that even when cooperation benefits all, individuals still have incentives to free-ride without enforcement, the heart of collective-action problems.
难度 进阶 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-02
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奥尔森《集体行动的逻辑》(1965)
Mancur Olson, The Logic of Collective Action (1965)
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 OPENLIBRARY 标识 /works/OL108561W：The logic of collective
#囚徒困境 #博弈论 #集体行动
当经济学把市场行动建模为原子化个体的理性计算时,格兰诺维特为何断言这忽视了社会结构的真实作用?他的“嵌入性”命题的核心主张是什么?
When economics models market behavior as rational calculation by atomized individuals, why did Granovetter insist this overlooks the real force of social structure, and what is the core claim of his “embeddedness” argument?
他在1985年刊于《美国社会学杂志》的经典论文中指出,经济行动总是嵌入于具体且持续运转的人际关系网络之中,并同时批评“低度社会化”(原子化个体)与“过度社会化”(完全受规范支配)两种极端假设。以求职为例,岗位信息大多经由熟人网络而非公开的市场竞价流动,说明秩序与信任主要依靠关系结构而非普遍道德或正式契约来维系。
In his classic 1985 article in the American Journal of Sociology he argued that economic action is always embedded in concrete, ongoing networks of personal relations, attacking both the “undersocialized” picture of atomized actors and the “oversocialized” picture of norm-dominated ones. Job seeking illustrates the point: vacancy information travels mostly through acquaintance networks rather than open market bidding, showing that order and trust rest mainly on relational structure rather than on universal morality or formal contracts.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 来源待核验 · Source pending review
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出处备注：此条未指向带版次的可引用著作（通识性内容、机构文件或未展开的英文书名），本库不提供独立书目出处；如需精确引用，需由编辑补全具体篇目与版次。
Mark Granovetter,“Economic Action and Social Structure: The Problem of Embeddedness”,American Journal of Sociology 第91卷(1985)
Mark Granovetter, “Economic Action and Social Structure: The Problem of Embeddedness”, American Journal of Sociology, vol. 91 (1985)
#嵌入性 #经济社会学