《巴黎协定》的「国家自主贡献」（NDC）机制有何特点？它为何被称为「自下而上」？
What characterizes the Paris Agreement's Nationally Determined Contributions mechanism, and why is it called 'bottom-up'?
NDC 由各国自行设定并定期更新减排目标，取代《京都议定书》自上而下的强制配额，故称自下而上。其透明性框架要求各国汇报进展，但缺乏硬性惩罚，依赖相互审评与声誉约束。
Under the NDC mechanism each country sets and periodically updates its own mitigation target, replacing the top-down mandatory quotas of the Kyoto Protocol, hence 'bottom-up'. A transparency framework requires progress reporting, but enforcement relies on peer review and reputational pressure rather than hard penalties.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 来源待核验 · Source pending review
来源 · Source
出处备注：著录含书名，但缺版次 / 出版社 / 年份中的一部分，需编辑补全后才能做独立比对。
《巴黎协定》(UNFCCC, 2015) 第4条
Paris Agreement (UNFCCC, 2015), Article 4
#巴黎协定 #国家自主贡献 #气候治理
全球公共品（如气候稳定、防疫）供给不足的经济学根源是什么？
What are the economic roots of under-provision of global public goods such as climate stability and pandemic control?
全球公共品具有非排他性与非竞争性，且受益跨越国界，单个国家缺乏出资激励，陷入「各国都想搭便车」的集体困境。由于不存在世界政府强制执行，只能依赖自愿协调与转移支付，导致长期供给不足。
Global public goods are non-excludable and non-rival, with benefits crossing borders, so no single country has sufficient incentive to pay, and each prefers to free-ride. With no world government to enforce contribution, provision depends on voluntary coordination and transfers, producing chronic under-supply.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 来源待核验 · Source pending review
来源 · Source
出处备注：著录仅给书名，无版次与年份；同一书名常对应多个版次，不臆测具体版本。
世界银行(World Bank)《Providing Global Public Goods》研究报告
World Bank, Providing Global Public Goods report
#全球公共品 #搭便车 #集体行动
WTO 的争端解决机制为何被称为「皇冠上的明珠」，又在 2019 年陷入停摆？
Why was the WTO dispute settlement mechanism called the 'crown jewel', and why did it stall in 2019?
该机制通过两级审理（专家组、上诉机构）提供具约束力的裁决，使贸易规则可强制执行，因而被称为皇冠上的明珠。2019 年美国长期阻挠上诉机构法官任命，导致上诉机构成员不足而无法运作，机制陷入停摆。
The mechanism provided binding rulings through a two-tier process, making trade rules enforceable, hence the 'crown jewel' label. In 2019 the Appellate Body collapsed after the US blocked judge appointments, leaving too few members to hear appeals.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 来源待核验 · Source pending review
来源 · Source
出处备注：著录仅给书名，无版次与年份；同一书名常对应多个版次，不臆测具体版本。
世界贸易组织(WTO)《关于争端解决规则与程序的谅解》(DSU)
WTO, Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Disputes (DSU)
#WTO #争端解决 #上诉机构
联合国安理会常任理事国的否决权是如何运作的？
How does the veto power of the UN Security Council's permanent members work?
安理会五个常任理事国（中、法、俄、英、美）在涉及实质性事项的非程序性投票中，任一国投反对票即可阻止决议通过。该机制源自《联合国宪章》第27条，旨在保障大国一致，但也常导致集体行动僵局。
Each of the five permanent members can block any substantive, non-procedural resolution by casting a negative vote. Established under Article 27 of the UN Charter, it was designed to secure great-power unanimity but often produces deadlock in collective action.
难度 进阶 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 来源待核验 · Source pending review
来源 · Source
出处备注：著录仅给书名，无版次与年份；同一书名常对应多个版次，不臆测具体版本。
《联合国宪章》(UN Charter) 第27条
UN Charter, Article 27
#联合国 #安理会 #否决权
什么是非政府组织（NGO）？它们在国际治理中通常扮演什么角色？
What are non-governmental organizations, and what roles do they typically play in global governance?
NGO 是由民间发起、以公益为目标的非营利组织，在人道救援、环保、人权等领域运作。它们通过提供实地信息、监督履约和倡导议程，填补国家与政府间组织的治理缝隙。
NGOs are non-profit, civil-society organizations pursuing public-interest goals in areas like humanitarian aid, environment, and human rights. They fill governance gaps left by states and intergovernmental bodies by supplying ground-level information, monitoring compliance, and shaping agendas.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 来源待核验 · Source pending review
来源 · Source
出处备注：此条未指向带版次的可引用著作（通识性内容、机构文件或未展开的英文书名），本库不提供独立书目出处；如需精确引用，需由编辑补全具体篇目与版次。
联合国经社理事会(ECOSOC) 非政府组织咨商地位文件
UN ECOSOC, NGO consultative status documents
#非政府组织 #全球治理 #公民社会
什么是人道主义干预？其国际法合法性存在哪些争议？
What is humanitarian intervention, and what controversies surround its legality under international law?
人道主义干预指为一国境内制止大规模人道灾难（如种族灭绝）而未经东道国同意使用武力。它在《联合国宪章》禁止使用武力的一般规则下缺乏明确授权，支持者诉诸「保护的责任」，反对者担忧其被用作干涉内政的借口。
Humanitarian intervention is the use of force, without the host state's consent, to halt mass atrocities such as genocide. It lacks clear authorization under the Charter's general ban on force; supporters invoke the Responsibility to Protect, while critics fear it becomes a pretext for interference in internal affairs.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 来源待核验 · Source pending review
来源 · Source
出处备注：著录含书名，但缺版次 / 出版社 / 年份中的一部分，需编辑补全后才能做独立比对。
联合国《保护的责任》(2005 世界峰会成果文件)
UN, Responsibility to Protect (2005 World Summit Outcome)
#人道主义干预 #保护的责任 #国际法
什么是主权债务？国际货币基金组织（IMF）的救助条件通常包含哪些内容？
What is sovereign debt, and what conditions does the IMF typically attach to its bailouts?
主权债务是中央政府以本币或外币向国内外借入、以国家信用背书的债务。IMF 贷款常附加财政整顿、货币政策收紧与结构改革等「条件性」要求，以恢复偿债能力，但也常引发紧缩争议。
Sovereign debt is borrowing by the central government, denominated in domestic or foreign currency and backed by the state's credit. IMF lending typically attaches conditionality such as fiscal consolidation, tighter monetary policy, and structural reforms to restore solvency, though this often sparks debate over austerity.
难度 进阶 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 来源待核验 · Source pending review
来源 · Source
出处备注：著录含书名，但缺版次 / 出版社 / 年份中的一部分，需编辑补全后才能做独立比对。
国际货币基金组织(IMF)《贷款条件性指南》(2002制定, 2009修订)
IMF, Guidelines on Conditionality (2002, revised 2009)
#主权债务 #IMF #条件性贷款
全球最低企业税（15%）旨在解决什么问题？它如何运作？
What problem does the global minimum corporate tax address, and how does it work?
该税由 OECD 主导的「双支柱」方案推动，旨在遏制各国为吸引跨国企业而竞相降低税率的「逐底竞争」。它对跨国集团境外利润设定 15% 最低有效税率，母国可对低税地利润补足征税。
Driven by the OECD's two-pillar plan, the 15% minimum tax curbs the race to the bottom in which countries cut rates to attract multinationals. It sets a 15% effective minimum on foreign profits, letting the parent country top up tax on income booked in low-tax jurisdictions.
难度 进阶 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-04
来源 · Source
Perez-Navarro,《Guest Editorial: What Does Pillar Two’s Global Minimum Tax Mean for Tax Incentives?》,Intertax,2023 (DOI: 10.54648/taxi2023017)
Perez-Navarro, 'Guest Editorial: What Does Pillar Two’s Global Minimum Tax Mean for Tax Incentives?', Intertax, 2023, DOI: 10.54648/taxi2023017
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 Crossref DOI 10.54648/taxi2023017; Intertax 51(2):100-10
#全球最低税 #BEPS #国际税收
什么是可持续发展目标？
What are the Sustainable Development Goals?
可持续发展目标（SDGs）是联合国2015年通过的17项全球议程，涵盖消除贫困、清洁能源、气候行动等，设定了到2030年的发展蓝图，供各国共同推进。
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are 17 global targets adopted by the UN in 2015—ending poverty, clean energy, climate action—forming a 2030 roadmap for all countries.
难度 入门 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#可持续发展目标 #联合国 #2030