什么是存在主义？
What is existentialism?
存在主义是20世纪兴起的哲学思潮，强调个体在荒诞或无先验意义的世界中必须自行选择并承担责任的自由。萨特、加缪和海德格尔等是其代表性人物。它关注焦虑、本真性与人的处境，而非抽象体系。
Existentialism is a 20th-century philosophical movement stressing the individual's freedom to choose and bear responsibility in a world seen as absurd or without predetermined meaning. Figures like Sartre, Camus, and Heidegger are representative. It focuses on anxiety, authenticity, and the human condition rather than abstract systems.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
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马丁·海德格尔《存在与时间》,1927;让-保罗·萨特《存在主义是一种人道主义》,1946
Martin Heidegger, Being and Time (Sein und Zeit), 1927; Jean-Paul Sartre, Existentialism Is a Humanism, 1946
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#存在主义 #自由 #责任
什么是唯物主义历史观？
What is the materialist conception of history?
唯物主义历史观（历史唯物主义）由马克思提出，认为物质生活的生产方式决定社会结构、政治与精神生活的一般特征。它强调经济基础与上层建筑的互动，并以阶级矛盾解释历史变迁。该理论深刻影响了社会学与政治学。
The materialist conception of history (historical materialism), proposed by Marx, holds that the mode of material production determines the general character of social structure, politics, and intellectual life. It stresses the interplay of economic base and superstructure and explains historical change through class conflict. It deeply influenced sociology and political science.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
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出处备注：著录仅给书名，无版次与年份；同一书名常对应多个版次，不臆测具体版本。
马克思 (1859). 《政治经济学批判（序言）》. 马克思、恩格斯全集.
Marx, K. (1859). A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy (Preface). Marx & Engels Collected Works.
#历史唯物主义 #马克思 #生产方式
什么是保守主义？
What is conservatism?
保守主义是一种强调传统、秩序、渐进改革与制度连续性的政治思想，常将社会视为有机整体。伯克在反思法国大革命时系统阐述了其审慎、尊重历史经验的立场。它与自由主义在变革速度与个人自由边界上常存分歧。
Conservatism is a political outlook emphasizing tradition, order, gradual reform, and institutional continuity, often viewing society as an organic whole. Burke systematically articulated its prudent, history-respecting stance in reflecting on the French Revolution. It often differs from liberalism on the pace of change and limits of individual freedom.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
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本题原挂出处与答案内容不符，已撤回；具体书目待补。
Previous citation withdrawn as unsupported for this answer; a specific source is pending.
#保守主义 #传统 #伯克
斯考切波为何主张社会革命是“到来的”而不是“制造的”?这一结构性立场如何塑造了她对法国、俄国与中国革命的比较历史分析?
Why does Theda Skocpol insist that social revolutions come rather than being made, and how does this structural stance shape her comparative-historical analysis of France, Russia, and China?
她认为革命成败取决于旧政权的国家机器危机、支配阶级与农民的结构关系以及国际军事竞争压力,而非密谋团体的意志。由此她把国家当作自主的分析单位,追踪三国在旧制度崩溃时刻国家能力与阶级结构的组合差异。这种结构性视角使她的解释区别于以革命者意图为中心的自愿主义叙事。
She argues that revolutionary outcomes hinge on crises of the old-regime state machinery, the structural ties between dominant classes and the peasantry, and pressures of international military competition, not on the will of conspiratorial groups. Taking the state as an autonomous unit of analysis, she traces how differing combinations of state capacity and class structure shaped the three cases at the moment of breakdown. This structural perspective sets her account apart from voluntarist narratives centered on revolutionaries' intentions.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
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西达·斯考切波:《国家与社会革命》,剑桥大学出版社1979年版;中译本见上海人民出版社2007年 ; 另见: Theda Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions, Cambridge University Press, 1979
Theda Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions, Cambridge University Press, 1979 ; see also: 西达·斯考切波:《国家与社会革命》,剑桥大学出版社1979年版;中译本见上海人民出版社2007年
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#历史社会学 #国家与社会革命
高度规范化、讲规则的竞技体育为何率先成型于十八世纪的英国？埃利亚斯与邓宁的“文明化进程”理论给出了怎样的解释？
Why did rule-bound, highly regulated competitive sport first take shape in eighteenth-century Britain, and what explanation do Elias and Dunning’s theory of the “civilizing process” offer?
两人在《寻求刺激》中提出“体育化”概念：十八世纪英国以议会立法压制血腥民俗，公学与俱乐部为球赛、拳赛制定统一章程，暴力受到抑制。与此同时，文明化进程收紧了日常的情绪控制，人们需要安全的宣泄口；体育以“受控的去控制”呈现带有悬念的模拟冲突，让人体面地体验兴奋。因此社会越规范，越需要体育来调节情感生活。
In Quest for Excitement the authors coin “sportization”: eighteenth-century Britain curbed bloody folk pastimes by statute, while public schools and clubs drafted uniform codes for ball games and prizefighting, taming violence. Meanwhile, the civilizing process tightened everyday emotional restraint and left people needing a safe outlet; sport supplies a “controlled de-controlling of emotional controls,” staging mimetic contests whose suspense lets participants savor excitement respectably. Hence the more tightly regulated a society becomes, the more it relies on sport to manage collective emotion.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
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诺贝特·埃利亚斯、埃里克·邓宁：《寻求刺激：文明化进程中的体育与闲暇》，牛津：Basil Blackwell 1986年版。
Norbert Elias & Eric Dunning, Quest for Excitement: Sport and Leisure in the Civilizing Process, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986.
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#体育化 #文明化进程 #情绪管理
什么是功利主义？
What is utilitarianism?
功利主义是边沁和密尔等人发展的伦理学说，主张行为的对错取决于其能否带来“最大多数人的最大幸福”。它强调结果导向与可计算的利益权衡。该思想对现代公共政策与成本效益分析影响深远。
Utilitarianism, developed by Bentham and Mill, holds that the rightness of an act depends on whether it produces 'the greatest happiness of the greatest number.' It emphasizes consequence-based and calculable trade-offs of interest. The idea deeply influences modern public policy and cost-benefit analysis.
难度 进阶 · 适合 高中(15-18)
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出处备注：本题原挂出处与答案内容不符，已撤回；具体书目待补，暂不展示来源。
本题原挂出处与答案内容不符，已撤回；具体书目待补。
Previous citation withdrawn as unsupported for this answer; a specific source is pending.
#功利主义 #边沁 #最大幸福
什么是工业革命？
What was the Industrial Revolution?
工业革命是18世纪末至19世纪始于英国、以蒸汽机与工厂制度为代表的生产方式巨变。它推动城市化、生产力飞跃和社会结构重塑。其影响延续至今，也带来了环境与社会问题。
The Industrial Revolution was the late-18th to 19th-century transformation beginning in Britain, marked by the steam engine and the factory system. It drove urbanization, a leap in productivity, and reshaped social structure. Its effects persist today and also brought environmental and social problems.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
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Polanyi, K. (1944), 《大转型：我们时代的政治与经济起源》
Polanyi, K. (1944), The Great Transformation: The Political and Economic Origins of Our Time
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#工业革命 #蒸汽机 #城市化
什么是自由主义？
What is liberalism?
自由主义是一种重视个人自由、平等、法治和有限政府的政治哲学传统，起源于启蒙运动。它主张保护私有财产与言论自由，并在历史上发展为强调市场或个人权利的多种流派。现代自由主义也日益关注社会福利与平等机会。
Liberalism is a political philosophy valuing individual liberty, equality, rule of law, and limited government, rooted in the Enlightenment. It champions private property and free expression and has branched into market- or rights-oriented variants. Modern liberalism also increasingly addresses social welfare and equal opportunity.
难度 进阶 · 适合 高中(15-18)
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Friedman，《资本主义与自由》(1962)
Friedman, 'Capitalism and Freedom' (1962)
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#自由主义 #个人自由 #法治
什么是女权主义（女性主义）？
What is feminism?
女权主义是主张男女平等、批判性别压迫与结构性不平等的思想与运动，内部有自由主义、激进与交叉性等不同流派。它推动了选举权、同工同酬与反暴力等社会变革。当代讨论日益关注交叉性（种族、阶级与性别的交叠）。
Feminism is the thought and movement advocating gender equality and critiquing sex-based oppression and structural inequality, with liberal, radical, and intersectional strands. It drove changes like suffrage, equal pay, and anti-violence measures. Contemporary debate increasingly addresses intersectionality across race, class, and gender.
难度 进阶 · 适合 高中(15-18)
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Crenshaw，《取消种族与性别的边缘化》(1989)
Crenshaw, 'Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex' (1989)
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#女权主义 #性别平等 #交叉性
历史社会学如何解释现代民族国家的兴起?应当怎样理解蒂利“战争制造国家”这一命题?
How does historical sociology explain the rise of modern nation-states, and what does Tilly's claim that 'war made the state' mean?
蒂利指出,欧洲体系内持续的生存竞争迫使统治者不断征税、招募常备军并削平地方割据,军事化进程由此与资本积累交织,催生出集权而专业的现代国家。“战争制造国家”强调的不是个别战事的偶然结果,而是地缘竞争作为结构性筛选机制,只让能有效动员资源并垄断合法暴力的政体存续下去。各地区在强制与资本结合方式上的差异,进一步解释了民族国家路径的分化。
Tilly shows that relentless geopolitical competition forced European rulers to tax, build standing armies, and crush local rivals, weaving war-making together with capital accumulation into centralized, professional states. 'War made the state' means not that any single battle was decisive, but that interstate rivalry worked as a structural filter, letting survive only those polities able to mobilize resources and monopolize violence. Divergent regional combinations of coercion and capital then explain why paths toward the national state differed.
难度 进阶 · 适合 大众
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查尔斯·蒂利:《强制、资本和欧洲国家(公元990—1992年)》,上海人民出版社,2007 ; 另见: Charles Tilly, Coercion, Capital, and European States, AD 990–1992, Blackwell, 1990
Charles Tilly, Coercion, Capital, and European States, AD 990–1992, Blackwell, 1990 ; see also: 查尔斯·蒂利:《强制、资本和欧洲国家(公元990—1992年)》,上海人民出版社,2007
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#国家形成 #强制与资本
什么是文艺复兴对科学的影响？
What was the Renaissance's influence on science?
文艺复兴重新推崇古典学问与人本精神，鼓励人们观察和质疑自然，为后来的科学革命铺垫了思想土壤。印刷术使书籍普及，知识传播加速。它对教育、艺术与探索精神的重视，间接推动了近代科学的发展。
The Renaissance revived classical learning and humanist spirit, encouraging observation and questioning of nature, preparing the intellectual ground for the later Scientific Revolution. Printing spread books and accelerated knowledge. Its emphasis on education, art, and exploration indirectly advanced modern science.
难度 入门 · 适合 大众
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出处备注：本题原挂出处与答案内容不符，已撤回；具体书目待补，暂不展示来源。
本题原挂出处与答案内容不符，已撤回；具体书目待补。
Previous citation withdrawn as unsupported for this answer; a specific source is pending.
#文艺复兴 #科学革命 #人文主义
什么是人权观念的起源？
What are the origins of the idea of human rights?
人权观念可追溯至古代关于自然法的思想，并在启蒙运动中被系统化为普遍、不可剥夺的权利。20世纪两次世界大战后，《世界人权宣言》使其成为全球共识。它强调不论身份，每个人都享有基本尊严。
The idea of human rights traces to ancient notions of natural law and was systematized as universal, inalienable rights during the Enlightenment. After the world wars of the 20th century, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights made it a global consensus. It stresses that everyone is entitled to basic dignity regardless of status.
难度 入门 · 适合 大众
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出处备注：本题原挂出处与答案内容不符，已撤回；具体书目待补，暂不展示来源。
本题原挂出处与答案内容不符，已撤回；具体书目待补。
Previous citation withdrawn as unsupported for this answer; a specific source is pending.
#人权 #自然法 #启蒙