什么是恢复性司法？
What is restorative justice?
恢复性司法强调让加害者、受害者与社区共同参与，通过道歉、赔偿与和解来修复伤害，而非仅以监禁惩罚。它在青少年犯罪与轻罪中应用较多。
Restorative justice brings offender, victim, and community together to repair harm through apology, reparation, and reconciliation, rather than prison alone. It is common for youth and minor offenses.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
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出处备注：著录含书名，但缺版次 / 出版社 / 年份中的一部分，需编辑补全后才能做独立比对。
联合国《关于在刑事事项中采用恢复性司法方案的基本原则》(2002)
UN, Basic Principles on the Use of Restorative Justice Programmes in Criminal Matters (2002)
#恢复性司法 #和解 #修复
程序正义（procedural justice）为何比结果正义更影响民众对制度的信任？
Why does procedural justice shape public trust in institutions more than outcome fairness does?
泰勒（Tom Tyler）的研究表明，人们是否服从法律更多取决于程序是否公正（被尊重、有发言权），而非结果是否对自己有利。可感知的公平程序提升自愿守法与长期制度信任，即便个体在单次结果中受损。
Tom Tyler's research shows compliance depends more on whether procedures are fair, being treated with respect and given a voice, than on favorable outcomes. Perceived fair process builds voluntary compliance and long-term institutional trust even when an individual loses a particular case.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-10-04
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Tyler,《Why People Obey the Law》(2006)
Tom Tyler, Why People Obey the Law (2006)
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 ISBN 9780300044034 (2006)
#程序正义 #制度信任 #守法
恢复性司法（restorative justice）与传统惩罚性司法有何本质差异？
How does restorative justice fundamentally differ from traditional retributive justice?
惩罚性司法以国家追诉、量刑报应为核心，关注违法者应受何种惩罚；恢复性司法则召集加害者、受害者和社区对话，聚焦修复伤害、承担责任与重建关系。其效果在部分轻罪与少年案件中显示可提升满意度并降低再犯率。
Retributive justice centers on state prosecution and proportionate punishment, asking what the offender deserves; restorative justice convenes offender, victim, and community to repair harm, accept responsibility, and rebuild relationships. Evaluations in some minor and juvenile cases show higher satisfaction and lower recidivism.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 来源待核验 · Source pending review
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出处备注：著录含书名，但缺版次 / 出版社 / 年份中的一部分，需编辑补全后才能做独立比对。
联合国《关于在刑事事项中采用恢复性司法方案的基本原则》(2002)
UN, Basic Principles on the Use of Restorative Justice Programmes in Criminal Matters (2002)
#恢复性司法 #刑罚 #修复
纠纷金字塔模型如何刻画一段受害经历从私人不满走向正式法律主张的逐级转化过程?
How does the disputing pyramid model depict the staged conversion of an injurious experience from private grievance into formal legal claim?
该模型提出命名、归责、主张三重转化:当事人先确认自己受了伤,再把责任归于某一对象,最后才向对方提出补救要求。每一环节都有大批个案流失,真正进入法院者只是纠纷总量的塔尖。追踪这条转化链还揭示,人们对法律的观念决定了他们是否以及何时动用法律。
The model posits triple transformations—naming, blaming, claiming: a person first defines the experience as an injury, next assigns responsibility to someone, and only then presses for a remedy. Massive attrition occurs at every step, so courtroom cases form just the tip of the pyramid of unredressed grievances. Tracing this chain further shows that people's images of law govern whether and when they invoke it.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-02
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Felstiner、Abel 与 Sarat 合著论文《纠纷的出现与转化:命名、归责与主张》,载《法律与社会评论》第15卷第3/4期合刊(1980–81)
William L. F. Felstiner, Richard L. Abel & Austin Sarat, The Emergence and Transformation of Disputes: Naming, Blaming, Claiming..., Law & Society Review, vol. 15, no. 3/4, 1980-81
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 CROSSREF 标识 10.2307/3053505：The Emergence and Transforma
#纠纷转化 #法律意识
越轨社会学中的“中立化技术”指什么？它如何解释许多越轨行为得以发生？
What are “techniques of neutralization” in the sociology of deviance, and how do they account for the occurrence of much deviant behavior?
西克斯和马茨拉认为，多数越轨者其实早已内化主流道德，因此会在越轨行为发生前用话语技巧暂时“中和”它——这是事前的开脱，而非事后的合理化：否认责任（怪罪环境）、否认伤害（没人受损）、否认受害（对方活该）、谴责谴责者（人人都这样）、诉诸更高忠诚（为同伴义气）。这类自我开脱让越轨与守法形象并存，解释了为何许多越轨是情境性、偶发性而非持续生涯。
Sykes and Matza argued that most delinquents internalize conventional morality long before offending, so they neutralize it in advance with verbal devices—an exculpation made before the act, not a post-hoc rationalization: denial of responsibility (blaming circumstances), denial of injury (no real harm done), denial of the victim (they deserved it), condemnation of the condemners (everybody does it), and appeal to higher loyalties (loyalty to peers). Such self-exculpations let offenders keep a law-abiding self-image, which explains why much deviance is situational and episodic rather than a continuing career.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-03
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乔治·西克斯、戴维·马茨拉：《中立化技术：一种越轨理论》，《美国社会学评论》1957年第22卷第6期，第664–670页
Gresham M. Sykes & David Matza, Techniques of Neutralization: A Theory of Delinquency, American Sociological Review 22(6), 1957, pp.664-670
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 OPENLIBRARY 标识 /works/OL4139934W：Techniques of neutraliz
#犯罪社会学 #越轨行为 #中立化技术
法律实证主义与自然法学说对「法律是什么」的根本分歧是什么？
What is the fundamental divide between legal positivism and natural law theory on what law is?
法律实证主义主张「法律是什么」与「法律应当是什么」分离，实在法只要由权威按程序制定即有效。自然法则认为法律的正当性须契合更高的道德秩序，恶法非法。
Legal positivism holds that what the law is is separate from what it ought to be, valid law is simply that enacted by authority through proper procedure. Natural law argues a law's legitimacy depends on a higher moral order, so unjust law is not truly law.
难度 进阶 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 来源待核验 · Source pending review
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出处备注：著录含书名，但缺版次 / 出版社 / 年份中的一部分，需编辑补全后才能做独立比对。
哈特《法律的概念》(The Concept of Law, 1961)
H.L.A. Hart, The Concept of Law (1961)
#法律实证主义 #自然法 #法理学
司法独立指什么？它为什么被认为有利于经济发展？
What does judicial independence mean, and why is it thought to benefit economic development?
司法独立指法官在审理中不受行政与政治干预、仅依法律与事实裁判。可预期、公正的合同执行与产权保护降低交易不确定性，从而鼓励投资与长期经济活动。
Judicial independence means judges decide cases free from executive or political interference, relying only on law and facts. Predictable, impartial enforcement of contracts and property rights lowers uncertainty and thereby encourages investment and long-term economic activity.
难度 进阶 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 来源待核验 · Source pending review
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出处备注：著录含书名，但缺版次 / 出版社 / 年份中的一部分，需编辑补全后才能做独立比对。
La Porta, Lopez-de-Silanes, Shleifer & Vishny,《Law and Finance》(Journal of Financial Economics, 1998)
La Porta, Lopez-de-Silanes, Shleifer & Vishny, 'Law and Finance' (Journal of Financial Economics, 1998)
#司法独立 #产权 #经济发展
什么是外部性？法律与政策通常通过哪些方式将其「内化」？
What is an externality, and how do law and policy typically internalize it?
外部性是一方行为给无关第三方带来未补偿的成本（负）或收益（正）。政策常用庇古税（对污染征税）、可交易的排污权或侵权法上的损害赔偿，把外部成本计入决策者的账本。
An externality arises when one party's action imposes uncompensated costs or benefits on uninvolved third parties. Policy typically internalizes it via Pigouvian taxes on pollution, tradable permits, or tort-law damages that put the external cost back on the decision-maker.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-02
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《经济学原理》(曼昆)（外部性章）
Principles of Economics (Mankiw), externalities chapter
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 ISBN 9787301312971（豆瓣书目条目: 经济学原理）
#外部性 #庇古税 #侵权法
什么是制度信任？它为何被视为社会合作的基石？
What is institutional trust, and why is it considered the bedrock of social cooperation?
制度信任是公众对有形制度（政府、司法、媒体、市场）公正可靠运作的信心。高制度信任降低监督与履约成本，使大规模陌生人协作成为可能；信任崩塌则推高交易成本并助长机会主义。
Institutional trust is the public's confidence that tangible institutions such as government, courts, media, and markets operate fairly and reliably. High trust lowers monitoring and enforcement costs, enabling large-scale cooperation among strangers; its collapse raises transaction costs and breeds opportunism.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
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出处备注：此条未指向带版次的可引用著作（通识性内容、机构文件或未展开的英文书名），本库不提供独立书目出处；如需精确引用，需由编辑补全具体篇目与版次。
世界价值观调查(World Values Survey) 制度信任模块
World Values Survey, institutional trust module
#制度信任 #社会资本 #合作
什么是法治（rule of law）？它与「以法治国」（rule by law）有何区别？
What is the rule of law, and how does it differ from 'rule by law'?
法治要求政府自身也受法律约束，法律面前权力可被审议与制约，保障个人权利。以法治国则仅把法律当作统治工具，权力高于法律、可随意立法施政。
The rule of law binds the government itself to law, subjecting power to review and constraint while protecting individual rights. Rule by law merely uses law as an instrument of rule, with power above the law and free to legislate at will.
难度 进阶 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 来源待核验 · Source pending review
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出处备注：著录仅给书名，无版次与年份；同一书名常对应多个版次，不臆测具体版本。
世界正义工程(World Justice Project)《法治指数》方法论
World Justice Project, Rule of Law Index methodology
#法治 #制度 #权利
埃利希所说的活法与国家制定法是什么关系?这一区分把法律社会学的目光引向何处?
What is Eugen Ehrlich's living law relative to enacted state law, and where does his distinction turn the sociological gaze?
埃利希认为维系社会秩序的规则大多生长于家庭、商贩往来、行会与协会等联合体内部,人们依此行事却极少翻阅法典,他把这部分内生规范称作活法;国家颁行的条文仅在纠纷诉诸法庭时才直接登场。因此法律社会学的一手材料应是契约实践、组织章程与行业惯例,而非立法文本本身。这一立场孕育了此后的法律多元主义与法社会功能主义脉络。
Ehrlich held that most rules sustaining social order arise inside families, trade, guilds, and associations; people live by these endogenous norms while rarely consulting statutes, and he named them living law. Enacted provisions step forward chiefly when disputes reach the courts. The primary materials for legal sociology are therefore contracting practice, organizational charters, and occupational custom rather than legislative texts, a stance that seeded later legal pluralism and functionalist sociolegal research.
难度 进阶 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-03
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欧根·埃利希《法社会学基本原理》,1913年德文初版,沃尔特·莫尔英译本(哈佛大学出版社,1936)
Eugen Ehrlich, Fundamental Principles of the Sociology of Law, trans. Walter Moll (Harvard University Press, 1936; German original 1913)
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 OPENLIBRARY 标识 /works/OL10439370W：Fundamental principles
#活法 #法律多元
什么是犯罪率？
What is the crime rate?
犯罪率是一定时间、一定人口中发生犯罪案件的数量，常表示为每十万人中的发案数。它受统计口径、报案率与执法力度影响，跨地区比较须谨慎。
The crime rate is the number of offenses in a period per population, often per 100,000 people. It is shaped by definitions, reporting rates, and policing, so cross-region comparison needs care.
难度 入门 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
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Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#犯罪率 #统计 #报案
无罪推定是什么意思?为什么宁可放走嫌疑人也不能冤枉好人?
What does presumption of innocence mean — why risk freeing suspects over wronging innocents?
无罪推定是现代法治基石:任何人在法院判决有罪前都推定为无罪,控方必须拿出确凿证据,被告无需自证清白。理由是一个不对称账本:错放一个坏人,损失的是一案;错判一个好人,摧毁的是他的人生加公众对法律的信任。程序正义或许偶尔放慢惩罚,却守护着每个人免受权力滥用的底线。
Presumption of innocence anchors modern justice: everyone counts innocent until courts convict, prosecutors must prove guilt solidly, defendants never prove innocence. The logic is an asymmetric ledger: freeing one guilty person loses one case; convicting one innocent destroys a life plus public trust. Procedure sometimes slows punishment but shields everyone from abuse of power.
难度 入门 · 适合 小学高段(9-12)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-10-03 · 2 条独立证据
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韩启德总主编《十万个为什么》(第六版),少年儿童出版社,2013
Han Qide chief ed., Ten Thousand Whys, 6th edition, Juvenile and Children Publishing House, 2013, 6th ed., Juvenile and Children Publishing House, 2013
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 ISBN 978-7-5324-9328-9 · 核验依据 2 ISBN 9787532493289
#无罪推定 #程序正义 #法治精神