什么是威斯特伐利亚体系？
What is the Westphalian system?
威斯特伐利亚体系源于1648年结束欧洲宗教战争的《威斯特伐利亚和约》，确立了以主权国家为基本单位、互不干涉内政的国际秩序原则。它奠定了现代民族国家体系和国际法的基础。至今主权平等仍是国家间关系的重要准则。
The Westphalian system originated from the 1648 Peace of Westphalia ending Europe's religious wars, establishing sovereign states as the basic units with non-interference in internal affairs. It laid the foundations of the modern nation-state system and international law. Sovereign equality remains a key norm in interstate relations.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#威斯特伐利亚 #主权国家 #国际法
什么是政治极化？
What is political polarization?
政治极化指社会或政治精英在意识形态、政策立场上的分歧加剧，中间温和力量减弱、对立阵营相互排斥的现象。它可能导致立法僵局、治理效率下降和社会撕裂。近年来在多个民主国家，媒体与社交网络被认为加剧了极化趋势。
Political polarization is the widening gap in ideology and policy positions among the public or elites, with a shrinking moderate center and mutual hostility between camps. It can cause legislative gridlock, weaker governance, and social fragmentation. In several democracies, media and social networks are seen as amplifying the trend.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#政治极化 #政党 #社会分裂
什么是威权主义？
What is authoritarianism?
威权主义是一种权力高度集中、政治多元与公民自由受限的政体类型，与民主相对。它可由个人、军方或单一政党主导，通常缺乏竞争性选举与权力制衡。学者们研究其稳定性与转型条件。
Authoritarianism is a regime type with centralized power, limited political pluralism, and restricted civil liberties, in contrast to democracy. It may be led by an individual, the military, or a single party, usually lacking competitive elections and checks and balances. Scholars study its stability and conditions for transition.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#威权主义 #政体 #权力集中
什么是“平庸民族主义”？它是如何解释日常生活中的民族认同再生产的？
What is “banal nationalism” and how does it explain the everyday reproduction of national identity?
迈克尔·比林格在《平庸民族主义》中提出：民族认同主要不靠狂热仪式，而靠日常话语里细碎的“插旗”——天气预报里的国界地图、“我们／他们”的措辞、媒体对本国事务的默认聚焦。这些微小符号反复确认民族的在场，使民族成为无须反思的默认参照框架；自认温和者其实每天都在无意间再生产民族主义。
Michael Billig introduced the term in Banal Nationalism (1995): national identity is sustained less by fervent ceremonies than by small, routine acts of “flagging” embedded in everyday discourse — weather maps bordered by the national territory, the wording of “we” and “they”, news media's default focus on domestic affairs. Such mundane symbols constantly remind audiences of the nation's presence, making the nation an unquestioned frame of reference; people who consider themselves mild and neutral thus reproduce nationalism daily without noticing.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-10-04
来源 · Source
Michael Billig，《Banal Nationalism》（平庸民族主义），伦敦：Sage出版社，1995年。
Billig, M. (1995). Banal Nationalism. London: Sage.
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 ISBN 9781446264577 (1995)
#平庸民族主义 #日常插旗 #国家认同
什么是社会契约论？
What is the social contract theory?
社会契约论认为政府的合法权力来自人民自愿达成的协议，人们让渡部分自然权利以换取秩序与安全。霍布斯、洛克和卢梭分别从不同角度阐述了这一理论。它成为现代国家合法性与公民义务论述的重要基础。
Social contract theory holds that a government's legitimate authority comes from the consent of the people, who surrender some natural rights in exchange for order and security. Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau each developed the idea from different angles. It remains a foundation for discussions of state legitimacy and civic obligation.
难度 进阶 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#社会契约 #政府合法性 #启蒙思想
什么是投票制度？
What is an electoral system?
投票（选举）制度规定选票如何转化为席位的规则，主要有比例代表制、多数制和混合制等。不同制度会影响政党格局、代表性与执政稳定性。制度设计直接影响选民选择与政治结果。
An electoral system is the set of rules converting votes into seats, mainly including proportional representation, majoritarian, and mixed systems. Different systems affect party systems, representation, and government stability. Institutional design directly shapes voter choice and political outcomes.
难度 进阶 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#选举制度 #投票 #代表性
什么是舆论（公众意见）？
What is public opinion?
舆论是社会成员对公共事务持有的分散或集中的看法与态度，常通过民调、媒体与选举表达。它影响政策制定与政治合法性，但并非总是一致或可简单测量。媒体与信息环境会显著塑造舆论的形成。
Public opinion is the dispersed or concentrated views and attitudes of members of society on public affairs, expressed through polls, media, and elections. It influences policy and political legitimacy but is not always consistent or easily measured. Media and information environments significantly shape its formation.
难度 进阶 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#舆论 #民意 #政治参与
为什么说民族是“想象的共同体”？在安德森的解释里，印刷资本主义扮演了什么关键角色？
Why is the nation described as an “imagined community,” and what crucial role does print-capitalism play in Benedict Anderson’s account?
安德森强调，一国成员终其一生无法认识绝大多数同胞，民族只能靠共享的媒介在每个人心中想象出来。十八世纪前后，逐利的出版业大量印行方言报纸与小说，素不相识的读者在同一时刻消费同样的文本，由此形成统一的交流场域与“同质而空洞”的共同时间感。正是这种同时性体验，让陌生人得以想象彼此是命运与共的同胞。
Anderson stresses that no citizen will ever meet most fellow members of the nation, so nationhood must be imagined in each mind through shared media. From the late eighteenth century onward, profit-seeking publishing mass-printed vernacular newspapers and novels; strangers consumed identical texts at the same hour, forming a unified field of exchange and a shared sense of homogenous, empty time. This experience of simultaneity lets millions imagine themselves as compatriots bound together in a common fate.
难度 进阶 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-03
来源 · Source
本尼迪克特·安德森：《想象的共同体：民族主义的起源与散布》，伦敦：Verso 1983年初版、1991年修订版；中译本吴叡人译，上海人民出版社2005年版。 ; 另见: Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, London: Verso, 1983; rev. ed. 1991.
Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, London: Verso, 1983; rev. ed. 1991. ; see also: 本尼迪克特·安德森：《想象的共同体：民族主义的起源与散布》，伦敦：Verso 1983年初版、1991年修订版；中译本吴叡人译，上海人民出版社2005年版。
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 ARCHIVE 标识 imagined-communities-reflections-on-the-origi
#民族主义 #想象共同体 #印刷资本主义
什么是公民？
What is a citizen?
公民是指具有某国国籍、依法享有权利并承担义务的个人。公民通常拥有投票、受教育、受保护等基本权利。相应地，公民也需遵守法律、纳税和服兵役（在适用国家）等义务。
A citizen is a person who holds the nationality of a state and legally enjoys rights and bears duties. Citizens typically have basic rights such as voting and education, and protection under the law. In return, they are expected to obey laws, pay taxes, and where applicable perform military service.
难度 入门 · 适合 小学高段(9-12)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#公民 #国籍 #权利与义务
什么是法治与法制？
What is the difference between rule of law and rule by law?
“法制”指有系统的法律制度存在，而“法治”更强调法律至上、权力受约束与保障权利。一个社会可以有完备的法制却未必实现法治。法治的核心在于政府自身也要服从法律。
A legal system ('rule by law' in a loose sense) means there are systematic laws, while the rule of law emphasizes the supremacy of law, constraint on power, and protection of rights. A society can have a full legal system yet lack the rule of law. The core of the rule of law is that government itself is subject to law.
难度 入门 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#法治 #法制 #权力约束
什么是民主制度？
What is a democratic system?
民主制度是一种由人民通过选举、参与和制衡等方式共同决定公共事务的政治体制。它通常强调保护少数群体权利、言论自由和定期选举。不同国家的民主在形式上存在差异，如代议制与直接民主。
A democratic system is a form of government in which the public participates in decisions through elections, engagement, and checks and balances. It typically emphasizes protection of minority rights, freedom of expression, and regular elections. Democracies vary in form, such as representative versus direct democracy.
难度 入门 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#民主 #选举 #政治体制