什么是“监管俘获”？为什么监管者常保护被监管行业而非公众？
What is regulatory capture, and why do regulators often end up protecting the industries they regulate?
监管俘获指监管机构被其监管对象左右，出台的政策服务于行业利益而非公共利益。机制包括：行业信息不对称（监管者依赖企业提供技术数据）、“旋转门”（人员往来于监管部门与企业）、游说与竞选资金，以及“利益集中、成本分散”的结构——被监管企业数量少、利益集中、有强激励组织起来，而公众获益分散、组织成本高、关注度低。斯提格勒的规制经济理论甚至提出规制本身可能被行业“采购”。防范靠透明度、利益冲突规则、独立预算与公民参与。
Regulatory capture occurs when regulators are steered by those they regulate, serving industry rather than public interests. Mechanisms include information asymmetry (regulators depend on firms for technical data), revolving doors (staff moving between agency and industry), lobbying and campaign finance, and the “concentrated benefits, dispersed costs” structure—regulated firms are few, benefit intensely, and organize cheaply, while the public's gains are diffuse, costly to organize, and low-salience. Stigler's economic theory of regulation even argues regulation itself can be “purchased” by industry. Safeguards include transparency, conflict-of-interest rules, independent budgets, and public participation.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 来源待核验 · Source pending review
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出处备注：本题原挂出处与答案内容不符，已撤回；具体书目待补，暂不展示来源。
本题原挂出处与答案内容不符，已撤回；具体书目待补。
Previous citation withdrawn as unsupported for this answer; a specific source is pending.
#监管俘获 #规制理论 #寻租
为什么各地方政府或国家会接连采纳相似政策？“政策扩散”有哪些机制？
Why do subnational governments or countries adopt similar policies in waves? What mechanisms drive policy diffusion?
政策扩散指一项政策从一地传播到其他地区的过程，主要机制有四：学习（借鉴他处经验以提高自身效果）、竞争（为吸引资本与人才而追随邻区政策，如减税）、模仿（因合法性与声望效仿“标杆”地区）和强制或外部压力（上级政府或国际组织推动）。扩散不是简单的“抄作业”，采纳与否取决于本地政治、财政与利益格局；扩散可以加速（成功案例被宣传），也可能失败（水土不服）。这一框架被用于解释最低工资、碳税、禁烟令等政策的跨国传播。
Policy diffusion is a policy's spread from one jurisdiction to others, driven by four main mechanisms: learning (borrowing experiences to improve outcomes), competition (following neighbors to attract capital and talent, e.g., tax cuts), imitation (emulating benchmark regions for legitimacy and prestige), and coercion or external pressure (higher-level governments or international organizations). Diffusion is not simple copying—adoption depends on local politics, fiscal capacity, and interest groups; it can accelerate when success stories circulate or fail when transplants do not fit. The framework explains the cross-national spread of minimum wages, carbon taxes, and smoking bans.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 来源待核验 · Source pending review
来源 · Source
出处备注：本题原挂出处与答案内容不符，已撤回；具体书目待补，暂不展示来源。
本题原挂出处与答案内容不符，已撤回；具体书目待补。
Previous citation withdrawn as unsupported for this answer; a specific source is pending.
#政策扩散 #学习 #竞争 #模仿
什么是三权分立？
What is separation of powers?
三权分立把政府权力分为立法、行政、司法三部分，彼此独立又相互制衡，防止任何一个部门权力过大。美国是典型例子。
Separation of powers divides government into legislative, executive, and judicial branches that are independent yet check one another, preventing any one from becoming too powerful. The United States is a typical example.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#三权分立 #制衡 #政府
“现代化假说”认为经济发展会带来民主化，这一观点的证据与批评是什么？
The “modernization hypothesis” holds that economic development brings democratization—what is the evidence and the criticism?
李普塞特提出繁荣-教育-民主的关联，跨国数据确实显示高收入国家更可能维持民主，政治学共识是“经济发展虽不直接导致民主化，却是民主存活的最强预测因子”（“没有国家在贫困中保持民主”的论点）。但批评同样扎实：许多高增长国家长期保持威权（如海湾产油国，资源收入削弱了“国家依赖公民征税”的问责逻辑）；中产阶级崛起是否推动变革，取决于其与政权的利益绑定；反向因果同样存在——民主也可能促进教育投资。近期研究还发现，经济发展的作用更多是降低政变与威权回潮风险，而不是触发转型本身。
Lipset documented the prosperity-education-democracy correlation; cross-national data indeed show high-income countries are far more likely to sustain democracy, and the field's consensus is that development is the strongest predictor of democratic survival, even if it does not directly cause democratization (the “no nation in poverty stays democratic” argument). But criticisms are solid: many fast-growing countries stayed authoritarian for long periods (e.g., Gulf oil states, where resource revenue weakens the accountability logic of taxing citizens); whether a rising middle class pushes for change depends on its ties to the regime; reverse causality also exists—democracy may boost education investment. Recent research further shows development's role is more about lowering coup and authoritarian-reversal risks than triggering transition itself.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-03
来源 · Source
Seymour Martin Lipset，“Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy”，American Political Science Review，1959；Adam Przeworski 等，Democracy and Development，Cambridge University Press，2000。
Seymour Martin Lipset, "Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy," American Political Science Review 53(1), 1959; Adam Przeworski et al., Democracy and Development: Political Institutions and Material Well-Being in the World, 1950-1990, Cambridge University Press, 2000.
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 CROSSREF 标识 10.2307/1951731：Some Social Requisites of De
#现代化假说 #民主化 #经济发展
为什么有些国家采用联邦制？
Why are some countries federal?
联邦制通常出现在幅员广阔、族群或地区差异大的国家，它把权力在中央和地方之间分配。这样既能保持全国统一市场与国防，又能让各地区按自身情况立法（如教育、税收），减少单一集权引发的矛盾。历史上，联邦制也常是各方妥协、避免分裂的产物。
Federalism usually appears in large or internally diverse countries that split power between a central government and regional units. This keeps a unified market and defense while letting regions legislate on local matters like education or taxation, reducing conflicts from one-size-fits-all rule. Historically, federal systems also emerged as compromises that prevented breakup.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#联邦制 #中央 #地方
什么是地缘政治？
What is geopolitics?
地缘政治研究地理位置、自然资源和领土等因素如何影响国家间的权力关系与战略决策，比如沿海位置或能源分布会左右外交政策。
Geopolitics studies how geography, natural resources, and territory shape power relations and strategic decisions among states, such as how coastlines or energy supplies influence foreign policy.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#地缘政治 #战略 #权力
「民主和平论」主张民主国家之间为何较少爆发战争？
What does the 'democratic peace theory' claim about why democracies rarely fight one another?
民主和平论由迈克尔·多伊尔等学者在 1980 年代系统论证，认为民主国家因制度约束、相互透明的规范与和平解决争端的习惯，极少彼此开战。它已成为国际关系研究的经验性命题，但也长期伴随「选择性」与定义争议的批评。
Democratic peace theory, systematically argued by Michael Doyle and others in the 1980s, holds that democracies rarely wage war on one another because of institutional constraints, norms of transparency, and habits of peaceful dispute resolution. It is an empirical claim in international relations, though long debated over selection bias and definitions.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 来源待核验 · Source pending review
来源 · Source
出处备注：著录含书名，但缺版次 / 出版社 / 年份中的一部分，需编辑补全后才能做独立比对。
Doyle，《自由主义与世界政治》，American Political Science Review 1986
Doyle, 'Liberalism and World Politics,' American Political Science Review 1986
#民主和平论 #国际关系 #战争
什么是意识形态？
What is ideology?
意识形态是一套关于社会应如何组织、权力应如何分配的系统化观念，如自由主义、保守主义或社会主义，会影响政策和人们看世界的方式。
Ideology is a systematic set of ideas about how society should be organized and power distributed, such as liberalism, conservatism, or socialism. It shapes policy and how people view the world.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#意识形态 #观念 #政治
一部法律从想法到正式生效，一般要经过哪些环节？
What stages does a law typically pass through before it takes effect?
大致流程是：问题被识别并进入议程，立法机关提出议案，经委员会审议、公开辩论、修改后表决，通过后由行政首脑签署或批准，然后配套实施细则、设立执法机构并接受司法与公众监督。现实中的政策过程并不是直线，而是利益集团、媒体、专家和公众多方博弈的过程，很多法律在讨论中反复修改，执行环节往往最终决定政策的实际效果。
Roughly: a problem is identified and put on the agenda; a bill is introduced, reviewed in committee, publicly debated, amended, and voted on; after passage the chief executive signs or approves it; then come implementing regulations, enforcement agencies, and judicial and public oversight. In reality the process is not linear but a bargaining game among interest groups, media, experts, and the public; many bills change repeatedly during debate, and implementation often decides the real outcome.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 来源待核验 · Source pending review
来源 · Source
出处备注：著录含书名，但缺版次 / 出版社 / 年份中的一部分，需编辑补全后才能做独立比对。
H.L.A. 哈特《法律的概念》（1961）
H.L.A. Hart, “The Concept of Law” (1961)
#政策过程 #立法 #公共政策
普通公民能通过哪些方式参与公共事务？参与为什么重要？
In what ways can ordinary citizens take part in public affairs, and why does participation matter?
途径包括投票、参与社区事务、参加听证会和意见征集、加入公益或利益团体、写信和网络表达意见、参与志愿服务，甚至发起倡议或公益诉讼。参与的意义不仅是影响结果，更在于过程价值：让决策者了解多元需求、增强决策的合法性，同时培养公民的责任感和协商能力。但参与本身也不平等——时间、资源、信息多的人声音更大，因此制度设计需要为弱势群体留出表达空间。
Channels include voting, community affairs, public hearings and comment periods, joining civic or advocacy groups, writing and posting opinions, volunteering, and even launching petitions or public-interest lawsuits. Participation matters beyond outcomes: it surfaces diverse needs, strengthens the legitimacy of decisions, and cultivates civic responsibility and deliberation. Participation is itself unequal, since those with more time, resources, and information speak louder, so institutional design must leave room for disadvantaged voices.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23 · 2 条独立证据
来源 · Source
Robert Putnam,《Bowling Alone》Simon & Schuster,2000
R. D. Putnam, Bowling Alone, Simon & Schuster, 2000
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 2 OPENLIBRARY 标识 /works/OL4291077W：Bowling Alone（按标题+作者/年份
#公民参与 #公共事务 #协商
关于“严刑峻法能否降低犯罪”，实证研究的主要结论是什么？
What do empirical studies conclude about whether harsh punishment reduces crime?
大量研究一致发现“确定性（被抓获概率）比严厉性（刑期长短）更能威慑犯罪”，因为潜在罪犯对被抓概率更敏感。关于死刑威慑的争议极大：早期“每执行一次可挽救若干生命”的估计后来多被批评存在方法缺陷，近年准实验研究（如邻州废除与保留死刑的比较）总体未发现死刑有明显额外威慑效应。较扎实的发现是：增加街头警力与破案投入有威慑作用，而单纯延长刑期边际效果递减，甚至可能通过“监狱学习”机制增加再犯。政策含义是惩罚资源应偏向确定性而非一味加重。
Research consistently finds that certainty of apprehension deters crime more than severity of sentence, because potential offenders respond more to detection probability. The death-penalty deterrence literature is deeply contested: early estimates claiming each execution saves several lives were later criticized for methodological flaws, and recent quasi-experimental comparisons (e.g., neighboring states abolishing versus keeping capital punishment) find no robust additional deterrent effect. Firmer findings are that visible policing and detection effort deter, while merely lengthening sentences has diminishing marginal effects and may even increase recidivism through “prison as a school of crime.” The policy implication: allocate punishment resources toward certainty, not pure severity.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 来源待核验 · Source pending review
来源 · Source
出处备注：此条未指向带版次的可引用著作（通识性内容、机构文件或未展开的英文书名），本库不提供独立书目出处；如需精确引用，需由编辑补全具体篇目与版次。
UN（联合国毒品和犯罪问题办公室研究报告）
UN (UNODC research reports)
#威慑 #死刑 #实证犯罪学
联邦制与单一制有何区别？联邦制为什么常与“多样性大国”相联系？
How do federal and unitary systems differ, and why are federations often associated with large, diverse countries?
联邦制下，中央与地方（州、邦）的权力由宪法明确划分，双方都不能单方剥夺对方的权力，地方有自己的立法权、税收权和行政体系；单一制下地方权力由中央立法授予、可被收回。联邦制通过“让不同地区保留自治”来容纳语言、民族、宗教或经济差异，减少统一强压引发的冲突，同时保持共同市场与统一外交国防，但也可能带来政策碎片化、地区差距与相互“推卸责任”的问题。
In a federation, central and subnational (state) powers are divided by the constitution; neither can unilaterally take away the other's powers, and states have their own legislative, taxing, and administrative authority. In a unitary state, subnational powers are granted and revocable by central legislation. Federalism accommodates linguistic, ethnic, religious, or economic diversity by letting regions keep autonomy, reducing conflict from forced uniformity while preserving a common market and unified foreign and defense policy—but it can also bring policy fragmentation, regional gaps, and mutual blame-shifting.
难度 进阶 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-03
来源 · Source
Lijphart，《协和式民主》(1969)
Lijphart, 'Consociational Democracy' (1969)
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 OPENLIBRARY 标识 /works/OL2602571W：Consociational democrac
#联邦制 #单一制 #权力划分
为什么国家之间会结成联盟？
Why do countries form alliances?
国家结盟主要为了安全和共同利益。单个国家面对威胁时力量有限，结盟能互相承诺军事保护、分摊成本和威慑对手（集体安全）。联盟也方便贸易、情报共享和外交协调。本质上，结盟是“抱团”以降低风险、放大影响力的策略。
Countries form alliances mainly for security and shared interests. A single state facing a threat is limited, but an alliance offers mutual defense, shares costs, and deters adversaries through collective security. Alliances also ease trade, intelligence sharing, and diplomatic coordination. In essence, banding together is a strategy to lower risk and amplify influence.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#联盟 #外交 #安全
多数代表制与比例代表制对政党和议会构成有何不同影响？
How do majoritarian and proportional electoral systems differ in their effects on parties and parliaments?
多数制（如英美的单名选区）按“赢者通吃”分配议席，倾向产生两党制和单一多数政府，政治清晰但小党难获议席、得票与议席可能严重失衡；比例制（如欧洲多国）按得票比例分配议席，倾向产生多党制与联合政府，代表性更高但政府更易碎片化、组阁谈判成本高。杜瓦杰定律总结了这种规律性联系，实践中各国还通过门槛、选区规模等参数加以调节。
Majoritarian systems (single-member districts in the UK and US) allocate seats winner-take-all, tending to produce two-party systems and single-party majorities—clear politics, but small parties get few seats and votes-to-seats ratios can be badly distorted. Proportional systems (common across Europe) allocate seats by vote share, tending to produce multiparty systems and coalition governments—more representative, but more fragmented and costlier to form. Duverger's law summarizes this regularity, and countries fine-tune it through thresholds and district magnitudes.
难度 进阶 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23 · 2 条独立证据
来源 · Source
Rein Taagepera & Matthew Shugart,《Seats and Votes》Yale University Press,1989
R. Taagepera and M. S. Shugart, Seats and Votes, Yale University Press, 1989
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 2 OPENLIBRARY 标识 /works/OL2896980W：Seats and votes（按标题+作者/
#选举制度 #多数制 #比例代表制
腐败为什么会降低投资与增长？治理改革通常从何入手？
Why does corruption reduce investment and growth, and where do governance reforms typically start?
腐败相当于对经济活动征收的隐性税收，且方向不可预测：企业投资前不知要“买通”谁、付多少，不确定性本身吓退投资；它还扭曲公共资源配置、奖励寻租而非生产。治理研究强调制度根源——透明度、问责、竞争与制衡，改革常从预算公开、独立审计、政府采购竞争化、公务员工资与晋升激励入手，并配合公民监督与数据开放，而非只依赖反贪运动。
Corruption acts as an unpredictable hidden tax: firms do not know whom to bribe or how much before investing, and the uncertainty itself deters investment; it also distorts public-resource allocation and rewards rent-seeking over production. Governance research stresses institutional roots—transparency, accountability, competition, and checks—so reforms typically start with open budgets, independent audit, competitive procurement, and civil-service pay and promotion incentives, complemented by citizen oversight and open data, rather than relying on anti-corruption campaigns alone.
难度 进阶 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 来源待核验 · Source pending review
来源 · Source
出处备注：著录仅给书名，无版次与年份；同一书名常对应多个版次，不臆测具体版本。
World Bank（《治理与发展》等治理研究）
World Bank (Governance and Development and related governance research)
#腐败 #治理 #透明度
什么是“代际公平”？它在公共财政和气候变化议题中如何体现？
What is intergenerational equity, and how does it show up in public finance and climate policy?
代际公平指当代人的决策不能把不成比例的代价转嫁给未来世代。在公共财政上，表现为国债高企让后代纳税还债并挤占未来公共投资；在气候变化上，表现为今天的排放让后代承受海平面上升、极端天气的成本。由于未来世代没有投票权，市场也难以替他们“出价”，需要贴现率选择、长期预算制度和减排目标等制度安排把未来利益纳入当下决策。
Intergenerational equity means current generations should not shift disproportionate costs onto future ones. In public finance it appears as high public debt that future taxpayers repay and that crowds out future investment; in climate policy it appears as today's emissions imposing sea-level rise and extreme-weather costs on descendants. Because future generations cannot vote and markets price their interests poorly, institutional arrangements—discount-rate choices, long-term budget rules, emissions targets—must bring future benefits into present decisions.
难度 进阶 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 来源待核验 · Source pending review
来源 · Source
出处备注：著录仅给书名，无版次与年份；同一书名常对应多个版次，不臆测具体版本。
OECD（《经济政策改革》·长期财政可持续性分析）
OECD (Economic Policy Reforms, long-term fiscal sustainability analysis)
#代际公平 #公共债务 #气候变化
为什么国家需要一部宪法？
Why does a country need a constitution?
宪法规定国家的基本制度、政府结构和公民权利，是治理的最高规则。它像游戏规则书，防止权力被随意滥用。
A constitution sets out the basic system, government structure, and citizens' rights as the supreme rule of governance. Like a rulebook, it prevents power from being used arbitrarily.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#宪法 #根本法 #权利
比较福利国家时，为什么不能只看“花钱多少”？
When comparing welfare states, why can't we just look at how much they spend?
埃斯平-安德森提出按“去商品化”程度（劳动者不靠出卖劳动力也能维持基本生活的程度）和制度设计把福利国家分为三类：自由主义型（美、英，以家计调查和市场化福利为主）、保守-法团主义型（德、法，以就业和家庭为单位、维持社会等级）、社会民主型（北欧，普遍性、高福利、重平等）。同样花钱，普惠型与救助型在覆盖面、激励结构与去污名效果上差别很大，因此制度类型比开支规模更能解释结果差异。
Esping-Andersen classified welfare states by the degree of “decommodification”—how well people can maintain a basic living standard without selling their labor—and by institutional design: liberal (US, UK; means-tested, market-based welfare), conservative-corporatist (Germany, France; employment- and family-based, preserving status), and social-democratic (Nordic; universal, generous, egalitarian). The same budget can be spent very differently—universal versus targeted programs differ in coverage, incentives, and stigma—so institutional type explains outcomes better than spending size.
难度 进阶 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-02
来源 · Source
Esping-Andersen, G. (1990), 《福利资本主义的三个世界》, 政治出版社
Esping-Andersen, G. (1990), The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism, Polity Press
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 OPENLIBRARY 标识 /works/OL1974801W：The three worlds of wel
#福利国家 #去商品化 #埃斯平-安德森
政府为什么需要对市场进行监管，而不是放任不管？
Why does government regulate markets instead of leaving them alone?
因为市场自身存在局限：信息不对称（卖药的人远比买药的人知道得多）、外部性（污染）、自然垄断（电网）和公平问题（弱势一方易被剥削）。监管就是用规则纠正这些失灵，比如药品审批、食品安全标准、反垄断审查。但监管也有成本，过多过繁会抑制创新和效率，所以好的监管讲究适度与精准。
Because markets have built-in limits: information asymmetry, since sellers of drugs know far more than buyers; externalities like pollution; natural monopolies such as power grids; and fairness problems, where the weak can be exploited. Regulation corrects these failures through rules such as drug approval, food-safety standards, and antitrust review. But regulation also costs; too much of it stifles innovation and efficiency, so good regulation aims to be proportionate and targeted.
难度 进阶 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-03
来源 · Source
《经济学原理》(曼昆)（政府与市场章）
Principles of Economics (Mankiw), government and markets chapter
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 ISBN 9787301312971（豆瓣书目条目: 经济学原理）
#市场监管 #信息不对称 #反垄断
为什么许多国家要把权力分成立法、行政、司法三部分？
Why do many countries divide power into legislative, executive, and judicial branches?
三权分立源于孟德斯鸠“以权力制约权力”的思想：立法机关制定法律，行政机关执行法律，司法机关解释和适用法律。三个部门通过否决权、违宪审查等方式互相制约，防止任何一方权力过大而滥用。各国体制不同，有的更偏重议会制，但分权制衡的核心理念已被广泛接受。
Separation of powers comes from Montesquieu's idea that power must check power: the legislature makes laws, the executive enforces them, and the judiciary interprets and applies them. Through vetoes and judicial review the branches check one another, preventing any one from dominating and abusing power. Systems differ, some leaning toward parliamentary models, but the core idea of checks and balances is widely adopted.
难度 进阶 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#三权分立 #制衡 #法治
什么是外交？
What is diplomacy?
外交是国与国之间通过谈判、沟通和协议来处理关系、避免冲突、争取利益的活动，通常由外交官代表国家进行。
Diplomacy is how states manage relations through negotiation, communication, and agreements to avoid conflict and pursue interests, usually conducted by diplomats.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#外交 #谈判 #国际关系
李帕特的「协和式民主」怎样让深度分裂的社会仍能稳定治理？
How does Lijphart's 'consociational democracy' let deeply divided societies govern stably?
李帕特在 1969 年提出，族群或宗教严重对立的国家可通过「大联合政府、相互否决、比例代表与区域自治」等机制共享权力，而非靠多数压制少数。瑞士、荷兰等案例显示，这种「权力分享」能降低内战风险。
Lijphart argued in 1969 that societies split by ethnicity or religion can stay stable by sharing power—grand coalitions, mutual vetoes, proportional representation, and segmental autonomy—rather than majority rule over minorities. Cases like Switzerland and the Netherlands show power-sharing lowers civil-war risk.
难度 进阶 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-03
来源 · Source
Lijphart，《协和式民主》(1969)
Lijphart, 'Consociational Democracy' (1969)
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 OPENLIBRARY 标识 /works/OL2602571W：Consociational democrac
#协和式民主 #权力分享 #分裂社会
什么是公共政策？
What is public policy?
公共政策是政府为解决问题或达成目标而采取的行动、法律与资源分配方案。
Public policy is the set of government actions, laws, and resource allocations aimed at addressing problems or goals.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#公共政策 #政府
什么是国家主权？
What is national sovereignty?
国家主权指一个国家在其领土内拥有最高、独立的统治权，不受外部势力干涉。它是现代国际关系的基本准则。
National sovereignty means a state has supreme, independent authority within its territory, free from external interference. It is a basic principle of international relations.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#主权 #国家 #国际法
刑罚“威慑”的逻辑是什么？它在现实中受到哪些限制？
What is the logic of deterrence in punishment, and what limits does it face in practice?
威慑理论认为，人会在权衡犯罪收益与被抓、被罚的概率和代价后决定是否犯罪，因此提高破案率或刑罚严厉度可降低犯罪（贝卡利亚的“罪刑相应”）。但威慑依赖确定性、及时性与严厉性：被抓获概率的作用通常强于刑期长短，而冲动犯罪、情绪困扰或精神障碍者受威慑影响小，这就解释了为何单靠严刑并不总能奏效。
Deterrence theory holds that people weigh the benefits of crime against the probability and cost of being caught and punished, so raising detection rates or penalty severity can reduce crime (Beccaria's proportionality principle). But deterrence depends on certainty, swiftness, and severity: the probability of apprehension usually matters more than sentence length, and impulsive offenders, people in emotional distress, or those with mental conditions respond little to threats—which is why harsh penalties alone often fail.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-10-04
来源 · Source
Tyler,《Why People Obey the Law》(2006)
Tom Tyler, Why People Obey the Law (2006)
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 ISBN 9780300044034 (2006)
#威慑 #犯罪 #刑罚
联合国主要做什么？它为什么也有明显的局限？
What does the United Nations mainly do, and why does it have clear limits?
联合国成立于1945年，核心宗旨是维护国际和平与安全、促进国际合作。安理会负责和平与安全问题，联合国大会讨论广泛议题，下属机构则开展人道援助、儿童保护、发展和卫生项目。但它的效力受大国利益制约：安理会常任理事国可行使否决权，维和行动需要成员国派兵出钱，因此在面对重大冲突时往往反应迟缓、行动受限。
Founded in 1945, the UN aims to keep international peace and security and to promote cooperation. The Security Council handles peace and security, the General Assembly debates broadly, and its agencies run humanitarian aid, child protection, development, and health programs. Effectiveness is constrained by great-power interests: permanent Security Council members can veto, and peacekeeping depends on member contributions of troops and money, so responses to major conflicts are often slow and limited.
难度 进阶 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 来源待核验 · Source pending review
来源 · Source
出处备注：此条未指向带版次的可引用著作（通识性内容、机构文件或未展开的英文书名），本库不提供独立书目出处；如需精确引用，需由编辑补全具体篇目与版次。
联合国（联合国宪章与简介）
United Nations (Charter and overview)
#联合国 #国际组织 #全球治理
全球化以后，为什么很多问题靠单个国家已经解决不了？
Why can't single countries solve many problems in a globalized world?
因为气候变化、疫情、金融风险、跨境污染等问题的根源和影响都跨越国界，一国的努力很容易被别国的行为抵消。国际治理就是各国通过条约、国际组织和规则协调行动，比如《巴黎协定》让各国共同承诺减排。它的难点在于，如何让利益不同的国家都愿意遵守规则并分摊成本。
Because the causes and effects of climate change, pandemics, financial risk, and cross-border pollution all cross borders, and one country's efforts can be offset by others' behavior. International governance coordinates action through treaties, organizations, and rules, such as the Paris Agreement committing countries to shared emissions cuts. The hard part is getting states with divergent interests to comply and share costs.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 来源待核验 · Source pending review
来源 · Source
出处备注：此条未指向带版次的可引用著作（通识性内容、机构文件或未展开的英文书名），本库不提供独立书目出处；如需精确引用，需由编辑补全具体篇目与版次。
联合国（气候变化与可持续发展）
United Nations (climate change and sustainable development)
#全球化 #全球治理 #国际协议
法律、国防、警察这类服务，为什么必须由政府提供？
Why must government provide law, national defense, and police services?
这些属于典型的“公共品”：无法把不付费的人排除在外，一个人使用也不减少他人的使用。若交给市场，多数人会搭便车，供给必然不足。它们还涉及暴力的合法垄断——只有公共机构依法执法，才能避免私人报复和无序争斗。政府依靠税收融资提供这类服务，是现代国家的基本职能。
These are classic public goods: non-excludable and non-rival. Left to markets, free-riding would leave them underprovided. They also involve the legitimate monopoly on force, and only public institutions enforcing law can prevent private revenge and chaos. Funded by taxes, providing them is a basic function of the modern state.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-10-03 · 3 条独立证据
来源 · Source
N. Gregory Mankiw,《Principles of Economics》第8版,Cengage,2017;中译《经济学原理》北京大学出版社
N. G. Mankiw, Principles of Economics, 8th ed., Cengage, 2017; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 2 cengage.com
#政府职能 #公共品 #法治
刑罚主要有哪几种相互竞争的目的？
What are the main competing purposes of punishment?
刑罚目的大致有四类：报应（让犯罪者“罪有应得”，维护正义与道德秩序）、威慑（阻止本人再犯和他人效仿）、剥夺犯罪能力（监禁使其无法再犯）、改造（通过教育、技能和矫正使其重返社会）。它们有时冲突：报应主张罚当其罪，改造则强调量罪定刑、以复归为本，各国实践在四者之间取舍不同。
Punishment has roughly four purposes: retribution (offenders deserve their fate—justice and moral order), deterrence (stopping the offender and discouraging others), incapacitation (imprisonment removes the ability to offend), and rehabilitation (education, skills, and correction to re-enter society). They sometimes conflict: retribution demands proportionality to the crime, while rehabilitation emphasizes tailoring punishment to the offender's prospects. Different countries weigh the four differently.
难度 进阶 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 来源待核验 · Source pending review
来源 · Source
出处备注：著录含书名，但缺版次 / 出版社 / 年份中的一部分，需编辑补全后才能做独立比对。
H.L.A. 哈特《法律的概念》（1961）
H.L.A. Hart, “The Concept of Law” (1961)
#刑罚 #报应 #改造 #威慑
政党的主要职能是什么？
What are the main functions of political parties?
政党聚合利益、提名候选人、制定纲领并组织政府，是连接公民与国家的桥梁。
Parties aggregate interests, nominate candidates, formulate platforms, and organize government, bridging citizens and the state.
难度 进阶 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#政党 #选举
政治学比较民主与威权体制时，通常从哪些维度入手？
When political scientists compare democracy and authoritarianism, which dimensions do they typically examine?
主要看三个维度：竞争性（执政者是否通过自由公正的选举竞争上岗、能否和平轮替）、参与（公民能否广泛平等地参与决策和表达）、问责（统治者是否受法律、议会、媒体和定期选举约束）。威权体制并非铁板一块，可分为军人政权、一党制、君主制、个人独裁等；不少“混合体制”兼有选举形式和威权实质。比较时还须注意经济发展水平与社会结构对两类体制的绩效和稳定都有影响，不能简单二分评价。
Comparison typically rests on three dimensions: contestation (whether rulers gain power through free and fair elections and peaceful alternation), participation (whether citizens broadly and equally take part in decision-making and expression), and accountability (whether rulers are bound by law, parliaments, media, and periodic elections). Authoritarianism is not monolithic—it ranges from military regimes, one-party systems, and monarchies to personal dictatorship; many “hybrid regimes” combine electoral form with authoritarian substance. Comparison should also note that development level and social structure shape the performance and stability of both types, so simple binary judgments are misleading.
难度 进阶 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#民主 #威权 #问责
“热点警务”的依据是什么？
What is the rationale behind “hot-spots policing”?
实证研究发现犯罪并非均匀分布，而是高度集中于少数“热点”地点和时间——少数街道、路口贡献了大部分警情。热点警务据此把有限警力集中投向这些高发地点，随机实验和准实验评估显示，此举能在不大规模扩张警力的情况下显著减少该区域犯罪，且一般无明显犯罪“转移”效应。它体现了“用证据决定警力投向”的问题导向理念。
Empirical research shows crime is not evenly distributed but concentrated in a few “hot spots”—a small number of streets or intersections account for most incidents. Hot-spots policing concentrates limited patrols on these high-crime locations; randomized and quasi-experimental evaluations find it significantly reduces crime there without large police expansions and generally without major displacement. It embodies the problem-oriented principle of allocating police resources by evidence.
难度 进阶 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 来源待核验 · Source pending review
来源 · Source
出处备注：本题原挂出处与答案内容不符，已撤回；具体书目待补，暂不展示来源。
本题原挂出处与答案内容不符，已撤回；具体书目待补。
Previous citation withdrawn as unsupported for this answer; a specific source is pending.
#警务 #热点警务 #循证
什么是公民社会？
What is civil society?
公民社会指政府和企业之外的民间组织和网络，如慈善团体、社团和志愿者组织，它们让民众能自发参与公共事务。
Civil society refers to the web of non-governmental, non-business groups like charities, associations, and volunteer organizations through which people engage in public life.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#公民社会 #民间组织 #参与
国际关系中的「安全困境」为什么会让两个都不想开战的国家走向对立？
In international relations, why does the 'security dilemma' push two states that want peace into confrontation?
赫茨在 1950 年提出，一国为自保而加强军备，会被邻国视为威胁，邻国随之扩军，结果双方都更不安全。这种「防御性行为引发对方恐惧」的循环，常使本无恶意的强国陷入对抗。
Herz argued in 1950 that when one state arms for defense, neighbors see a threat and rearm too, leaving everyone less secure. This cycle—where defensive acts provoke the other's fear—can drive powers with no hostile intent into rivalry.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 来源待核验 · Source pending review
来源 · Source
出处备注：著录含书名，但缺版次 / 出版社 / 年份中的一部分，需编辑补全后才能做独立比对。
Herz，《理想主义国际主义与安全困境》，World Politics 1950
Herz, 'Idealist Internationalism and the Security Dilemma,' World Politics 1950
#安全困境 #均势 #国际冲突
民主制度的基本形式有哪些？
What are the basic forms of democracy?
主要有直接民主（公民直接表决）和代议民主（选举代表代为决策）两种形式。
The two main forms are direct democracy (citizens vote directly) and representative democracy (elected officials decide).
难度 入门 · 适合 小学低段(6-8)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#民主 #治理
什么是公民权利？
What are civil rights?
公民权利是保障个人免受歧视、享有人身自由与平等保护的法律权利。
Civil rights are legal guarantees protecting individuals from discrimination and ensuring liberty and equal protection.
难度 入门 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#公民权利 #法治