什么是社会资本？为什么说人脉和社区关系也是一种“资本”？
What is social capital, and why are networks and community ties called "capital"?
社会资本指嵌入在社会网络中的资源——信任、互助规范和熟人关系，个人可以借此获得信息、工作机会和帮助。帕特南把“连接型”社会资本（志愿团体带来的跨圈层关系）和“凝聚型”社会资本（亲戚老乡式的紧密圈子）区分开：前者通常带来新机会，后者利于内部支持。社会资本像社区的粘合剂，影响公共参与和治理质量，但也和财富一样分布不均，网络广而强的人优势更大。
Social capital means the resources embedded in social networks, such as trust, norms of reciprocity, and acquaintance ties, that people draw on for information, jobs, and help. Putnam distinguishes bridging social capital, cross-group ties from groups like volunteer associations, from bonding social capital, tight circles of kin and hometown; bridging usually opens new opportunities while bonding provides internal support. Social capital works like community glue, shaping participation and governance, yet it's as unevenly distributed as wealth, favoring those with broader, stronger networks.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23 · 2 条独立证据
来源 · Source
Robert Putnam,《Bowling Alone》Simon & Schuster,2000
R. D. Putnam, Bowling Alone, Simon & Schuster, 2000
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 2 OPENLIBRARY 标识 /works/OL4291077W：Bowling Alone（按标题+作者/年份
#社会资本 #信任 #社区
什么是象征互动论？
What is symbolic interactionism?
象征互动论是社会学微观视角，强调人们通过符号（语言、姿态）赋予行动意义，并在日常互动中建构自我与社会现实。米德、库利是其重要奠基者。
Symbolic interactionism is a micro-sociological view that people create meaning through symbols—language, gestures—and construct self and social reality in everyday interaction. Mead and Cooley were key founders.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#象征互动论 #符号 #自我
什么是社会流动？
What is social mobility?
社会流动指个人或家庭在社会阶层中的位置发生变化，比如从低收入移动到高收入。向上流动（阶层上升）和向下流动都存在；也可按代际（父母到子女）或一生内来划分。教育机会、公平性、经济结构和制度都会影响一个社会的流动难易程度。
Social mobility is the movement of individuals or families from one social position to another—for example, from low income to high income. Both upward and downward mobility exist, and it can be measured across generations (parent to child) or within a single lifetime. Education access, fairness, economic structure, and institutions all shape how easy mobility is in a society.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#社会流动 #阶层 #机会
普特南在《独自打保龄》中提出的“社会资本”衰退说明了什么？
What does Putnam’s “Bowling Alone” argue about the decline of “social capital”?
普特南在 2000 年用大量调查数据指出，美国人参加社团、投票和邻里互助等“社会资本”（即维系社会协作的信任与网络）自 1960 年代起持续下降。他认为这削弱了民主运作和社区凝聚力。
In 2000 Putnam used extensive survey data to show that American participation in clubs, voting, and neighborly help—forms of “social capital,” the trust and networks that sustain cooperation—declined steadily since the 1960s. He argued this weakens democratic functioning and community cohesion.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-03
来源 · Source
罗伯特·帕特南《独自打保龄：美国社区的衰落与复兴》（2000）
Robert Putnam, “Bowling Alone” (2000)
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 ARCHIVE 标识 bowlingalone00robe：Bowling alone : the collap
#社会资本 #普特南 #公民参与
什么是文化资本？
What is cultural capital?
文化资本是社会学家布迪厄提出的概念，指通过教育、家庭熏陶获得的品味、言谈、证书等无形资产，能帮助人在学校和社会中占据优势，从而再生产阶层地位。
Cultural capital, coined by sociologist Pierre Bourdieu, is the intangible assets—tastes, speech, credentials—gained through education and upbringing that give advantages in school and society, helping reproduce class status.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#文化资本 #布迪厄 #阶层再生产
教育为什么既被称为“向上流动的阶梯”，又被批评为“阶层再生产的机器”？
Why is education called a "ladder of upward mobility" and also criticized as a "machine for reproducing class"?
一方面，教育确实提升人力资本和收入，是普通人改变命运的主要通道。另一方面，教育机会和质量的分配并不平等：家庭背景影响学区、补习、课外投入和视野，优势阶层还能通过名校、人脉和“隐性课程”传递优势。布迪厄用“文化资本”解释这种机制——教育看似机会中立，却常把家庭背景的不平等转化成学业和职业的不平等。因此社会学既强调教育的重要性，也提醒人们看清它的双重面孔。
Education genuinely raises human capital and income, the main route for ordinary people to change their destiny. Yet access and quality are unequally distributed: family background shapes school districts, tutoring, extracurriculars, and horizons, and privileged families pass on advantages through elite schools, networks, and the hidden curriculum. Bourdieu's cultural capital explains the mechanism: an apparently neutral system converts family inequality into academic and career inequality. Sociology therefore stresses both education's promise and its double face.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 来源待核验 · Source pending review
来源 · Source
出处备注：著录仅给书名，无版次与年份；同一书名常对应多个版次，不臆测具体版本。
《社会学概论》(教育与社会章)
Introduction to Sociology (education and society chapter)
#教育公平 #阶层再生产 #文化资本
韦伯的「理解」（Verstehen）方法论主张怎样研究社会行动？
What does Weber's 'Verstehen' methodology argue about how to study social action?
韦伯主张社会学应「理解」行动者赋予行为的意义，而非只统计外在行为；研究者要设身处地解释其动机与价值。这一「解释性社会学」路径强调文化与意义，与纯量化的自然科学研究取向形成对照。
Weber held that sociology must 'understand' (Verstehen) the meaning actors attach to their behavior, not merely count outward acts; the researcher should interpret motives and values from the actor's standpoint. This interpretive approach stresses culture and meaning, contrasting with purely quantitative natural-science methods.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-03
来源 · Source
Weber，《社会科学方法论》(1949 英文版)
Weber, 'The Methodology of the Social Sciences' (1949)
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 OPENLIBRARY 标识 /works/OL1362892W：The methodology of the
#理解 #解释性社会学 #社会行动
学区制如何把居住隔离转化为教育机会不平等？“教育券”能解决吗？
How does the school-district system turn residential segregation into unequal educational opportunity, and can school vouchers solve it?
公立学校主要按学区就近招生，经费多依赖本地房产税，于是高房价社区集中了好学校与高收入家庭，形成“居住选择+学校质量”的循环强化：富裕家庭为学区溢价购房，进一步推高房价、挤出低收入家庭。学校选择政策（教育券、特许学校）旨在让低收入学区家庭“用脚投票”，但实证效果分化：竞争可能改善部分学校绩效，优质学额却常被信息与交通能力更强的家庭占据，可能加剧分层。研究强调真正打破循环要靠跨学区整合、公平拨款与住房去隔离政策的组合。
Public schools admit by catchment area and depend heavily on local property taxes, so high-priced neighborhoods concentrate good schools and affluent families—a self-reinforcing loop of residential choice and school quality: wealthy families pay premiums for good school districts, inflating housing prices and crowding out low-income families. School-choice policies (vouchers, charter schools) aim to let disadvantaged families “vote with their feet,” but evidence is mixed: competition may improve some school performance, yet better-informed and more mobile families capture the best seats, possibly deepening stratification. Research stresses that breaking the loop requires cross-district integration, equitable funding, and housing de-segregation together.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-04
来源 · Source
Weathers, Sosina,《Separate Remains Unequal: Contemporary Segregation and Racial Disparities in School District Revenue》,American Educational Research Journal,2022 (DOI: 10.3102/00028312221079297)
Weathers, Sosina, 'Separate Remains Unequal: Contemporary Segregation and Racial Disparities in School District Revenue', American Educational Research Journal, 2022, DOI: 10.3102/00028312221079297
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 Crossref DOI 10.3102/00028312221079297
#学区 #教育不平等 #教育券
涂尔干的“失范”指什么？
What did Durkheim mean by anomie?
失范指社会规范弱化、个体在快速变迁中失去行为准则与意义感的状态，涂尔干将其与更高的自杀率相联系。
Anomie is a state where social norms weaken and individuals lose moral guidance amid rapid change, which Durkheim linked to higher suicide rates.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#失范 #涂尔干
标签理论如何解释越轨行为？
How does labeling theory explain deviance?
标签理论认为，被权威贴上“越轨者”标签会改变他人期望与自我认同，反而强化其越轨行为。
Labeling theory holds that being tagged deviant by authorities reshapes others' expectations and self-identity, reinforcing the behavior.
难度 专业 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#标签理论 #越轨
布迪厄提出的“文化资本”概念指什么？
What does Bourdieu’s concept of “cultural capital” refer to?
布迪厄在 1979 年提出，文化资本指通过家庭教养和教育获得的、能转化为社会优势的知识、品味与举止，与物质财富同为阶层再生产的重要机制。这解释了为何同等经济条件下的家庭在子女学业成就上仍有差异。
Bourdieu proposed in 1979 that cultural capital is the knowledge, tastes, and manners acquired through family upbringing and education that can be converted into social advantage, alongside economic wealth as a mechanism of class reproduction. It helps explain why families with similar economic means differ in their children’s academic success.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 来源待核验 · Source pending review
来源 · Source
出处备注：著录含书名，但缺版次 / 出版社 / 年份中的一部分，需编辑补全后才能做独立比对。
皮埃尔·布迪厄《区隔》（La Distinction, 1979）
Pierre Bourdieu, “La Distinction” (1979)
#文化资本 #布迪厄 #阶层再生产
老街区被改造成高档街区（士绅化），为什么有人欢迎有人反对？
When a run-down neighborhood gentrifies, why do some welcome it and others resist?
士绅化指中高收入者迁入老旧街区，带动翻新、商业升级和房价上涨。支持者看到环境改善、治安好转、税收增加；反对者担心原住的低收入居民被房租和房价挤走，社区文化与熟人网络被破坏，即“驱逐性士绅化”。学者普遍认为，问题不在于改造本身，而在于有没有同步提供可负担住房、让原居民分享收益；否则升级就是以本地人的流失为代价。
Gentrification is when middle- and high-income residents move into older districts, driving renovation, upscale commerce, and rising property values. Supporters see better environments, safer streets, and more tax revenue; opponents fear low-income residents are priced out and local culture and networks are destroyed, so-called displacement gentrification. Scholars generally agree the issue isn't redevelopment itself but whether affordable housing and gains reach original residents; without that, upgrading comes at their expense.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-04
来源 · Source
Su, Hu, Wu,《Inclusive urban renewal: Housing demolition and gentrification》,Cities,2026 (DOI: 10.1016/j.cities.2025.106491)
Su, Hu, Wu, 'Inclusive urban renewal: Housing demolition and gentrification', Cities, 2026, DOI: 10.1016/j.cities.2025.106491
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 Crossref DOI 10.1016/j.cities.2025.106491
#士绅化 #城市更新 #住房
什么是结构功能主义？
What is structural functionalism?
结构功能主义是社会学的重要理论视角，认为社会像有机体，各组成部分协同维持整体稳定，代表人物有帕森斯和默顿。它强调制度的功能与社会的均衡。批评者指出它往往低估了冲突与变迁的作用。
Structural functionalism is a major sociological perspective viewing society as an organism whose parts work together to maintain stability, with figures like Parsons and Merton. It emphasizes the functions of institutions and social equilibrium. Critics note it tends to underplay conflict and change.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#结构功能主义 #帕森斯 #社会理论
为什么说疾病不仅是一种生物学事件,也是被社会定义的状态?请用帕森斯的病人角色概念加以说明。
Why is illness not merely a biological event but also a socially defined status? Explain using Parsons' concept of the sick role.
帕森斯在1951年的《疾病的社会功能》一文及其《社会系统》中提出,病人被暂时免除正常社会角色义务,但相应地必须求医并配合治疗以求康复。这一角色的边界由医患互动与社会规范共同划定,不同文化对何为疾病、由谁来照护的规定差别很大。因此疾病的认定与应对深深嵌入职业制度、权力关系和文化期待之中,而非仅由病理决定。
In “The Social Function of Morbidity” (1951) and in The Social System, Talcott Parsons argued that being ill temporarily exempts a person from normal role obligations, provided they seek help and cooperate in recovering. The boundaries of this role are drawn jointly by doctor-patient interaction and prevailing norms, and cultures differ widely over what counts as illness and who should provide care. Recognition of and response to disease are thus embedded in professional institutions, power relations, and cultural expectations rather than dictated by pathology alone.
难度 专业 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-03
来源 · Source
塔尔科特·帕森斯《社会系统》,自由出版社,1951年
Talcott Parsons, The Social System, Free Press, 1951
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 OPENLIBRARY 标识 /works/OL3796013W：The social system（首版 19
#医学社会学 #病人角色
代际流动意味着什么？
What does intergenerational mobility mean?
代际流动指子女相对父母在社会经济地位上的上升或下降，是衡量一个社会开放程度的重要指标。
It measures how children's socioeconomic status changes relative to their parents', indicating how open a society is.
难度 进阶 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#社会流动 #不平等
“弱连接”为什么常比“强连接”更能带来新机会？
Why are “weak ties” often better than “strong ties” at generating new opportunities?
强连接（家人、密友）构成紧密小圈子，成员掌握的信息高度重叠、传递快但同质；弱连接（点头之交、旧同事、普通熟人）桥接不同圈子，能带来新信息。社会学家格兰诺维特发现，很多人找到工作靠的是弱连接。但弱连接只是信息桥而非情感支持，职业高技能岗位的信息可能更多经强连接流动，两类连接功能互补。
Strong ties (family, close friends) form tight clusters whose members share overlapping, quickly circulating but homogeneous information; weak ties (acquaintances, former colleagues) bridge across clusters and bring novel information. Sociologist Mark Granovetter found that many people find jobs through weak ties. But weak ties are information bridges rather than emotional support, and strong ties may matter more for high-skill job information—the two types complement each other.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 来源待核验 · Source pending review
来源 · Source
出处备注：著录含书名，但缺版次 / 出版社 / 年份中的一部分，需编辑补全后才能做独立比对。
Granovetter, M. (1973), 《弱关系的力量》, 美国社会学杂志 (AJS), 78(6)
Granovetter, M. (1973), The Strength of Weak Ties, American Journal of Sociology, 78(6)
#社会网络 #弱连接 #求职
米尔斯的「社会学想象力」鼓励人们怎样把个人困境与社会结构联系起来？
How does Mills's 'sociological imagination' encourage linking personal troubles to social structure?
米尔斯在 1959 年提出，社会学想象力是看清「个人烦恼」与「公共议题」之间联系的能力，例如失业若普遍发生，就不是个人懒散而是经济结构问题。它提醒我们跳出自身经验，从更广阔的社会背景理解命运。
Mills argued in 1959 that the sociological imagination is the ability to see the link between 'personal troubles' and 'public issues'—for instance, widespread unemployment is a structural economic problem, not mere personal laziness. It urges us to step beyond private experience and read our fate against broader social context.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-03
来源 · Source
Mills，《社会学想象力》(1959)
Mills, 'The Sociological Imagination' (1959)
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 OPENLIBRARY 标识 /works/OL42712772W：The Sociological imagi
#社会学想象力 #个人困境 #社会结构
城市贫困为何往往在空间上聚集于特定街区？这会带来哪些后果？
Why does urban poverty often cluster spatially in particular neighborhoods, and what are the consequences?
城市贫困的空间聚集与住房市场的歧视性做法（如历史上的红线拒贷）、公共住房选址，以及区划规则把廉价住房挡在资源丰富社区之外密切相关。隔离使低收入居民更难获得好学校、正规工作信息与公共服务，并强化社会污名。因此政策强调“去集中化”、社区综合更新和改革区划壁垒，而不只是向穷人转移收入。
Spatial clustering of urban poverty is closely tied to discriminatory housing practices (such as historical redlining), the siting of public housing, and zoning rules that keep affordable housing out of well-resourced neighborhoods. Segregation makes it harder for low-income residents to access good schools, formal job networks, and public services, and reinforces stigma. Policy therefore emphasizes deconcentration, comprehensive neighborhood renewal, and zoning reform, not just income transfers to the poor.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 来源待核验 · Source pending review
来源 · Source
出处备注：著录仅给书名，无版次与年份；同一书名常对应多个版次，不臆测具体版本。
World Bank（《世界发展报告》）
World Bank (World Development Report)
#城市贫困 #空间隔离 #区划
什么是社会阶层？
What is social class?
社会阶层是根据收入、职业、教育等把人们划分成的不同群体，影响他们的生活方式、机会和权利。
Social class groups people by income, occupation, and education, shaping their lifestyle, opportunities, and rights.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#社会阶层 #阶级 #不平等
什么是社会化？
What is socialization?
社会化是个体学习所在社会的规范、价值观和技能的过程，主要通过家庭、学校、同伴和媒体完成，让人成为合格的社会成员。
Socialization is how individuals learn a society's norms, values, and skills, mainly through family, school, peers, and media, becoming competent members of society.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#社会化 #规范 #学习
涂尔干的《自杀论》如何证明自杀是一种社会现象？
How did Durkheim’s “Suicide” demonstrate that suicide is a social phenomenon?
涂尔干在 1897 年通过分析欧洲各国的自杀统计数据，发现自杀率随宗教归属、家庭状况和动荡时期系统性变化，而非由个人心理随机决定。他据此提出“社会整合”程度影响自杀率，奠定了实证社会学的方法基础。
In 1897 Durkheim analyzed suicide statistics across European countries and found that rates varied systematically with religion, family status, and periods of upheaval rather than random individual psychology. He concluded that the degree of “social integration” shapes suicide rates, founding the methodological basis of empirical sociology.
难度 进阶 · 适合 小学高段(9-12)
CC BY 4.0 · 来源待核验 · Source pending review
来源 · Source
出处备注：著录仅给书名，无版次与年份；同一书名常对应多个版次，不臆测具体版本。
埃米尔·涂尔干《自杀论》（Le Suicide, 1897）
Émile Durkheim, “Le Suicide” (1897)
#涂尔干 #自杀论 #社会整合
什么是社会控制？
What is social control?
社会控制是社会通过奖惩、舆论、法律与内化规范，使成员行为符合社会期待的机制，既可由国家自上而下的强制，也可由社区与家庭自下而上完成。
Social control is how society keeps conduct within expected bounds—through rewards, sanctions, public opinion, law, and internalized norms. It ranges from top-down state coercion to bottom-up community and family pressure.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#社会控制 #规范 #惩罚
什么是社会角色？为什么同一个人要同时扮演好几种角色？
What is a social role, and why does one person play several roles at once?
社会角色是社会对处在特定位置的人的一套行为预期，比如老师要教书育人、医生要救死扶伤。每个人同时是子女、学生、朋友、员工，因此同时承担着多种角色。当不同角色的要求彼此冲突（比如加班与陪家人），就会产生“角色冲突”，这是现代人普遍承受的压力来源之一。
A social role is the set of behaviors society expects from someone in a particular position, such as teachers teaching and doctors healing. Everyone is simultaneously a child, a student, a friend, and an employee, so we carry many roles at once. When the demands of different roles clash, such as overtime versus family time, role conflict arises, a common source of stress in modern life.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-03
来源 · Source
《社会学概论》(社会化与角色章)
Introduction to Sociology (socialization and roles chapter)
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 ISBN 9787040371840（豆瓣书目条目: 社会学概论）
#社会角色 #角色冲突 #社会化
马克斯·韦伯所说的“新教伦理”与资本主义精神有何关联？
What connection did Max Weber draw between the “Protestant ethic” and the “spirit of capitalism”?
韦伯在 1905 年提出，加尔文宗等新教教派强调勤奋、节俭和天职观，这些观念无意中培育了以理性积累和再投资为核心的资本主义精神。他并非声称这是唯一原因，而是强调宗教价值观对经济发展的文化影响。
Weber argued in 1905 that Protestant sects such as Calvinism, with their emphasis on hard work, frugality, and a “calling,” unintentionally fostered a capitalist spirit centered on rational accumulation and reinvestment. He did not claim this was the sole cause but highlighted the cultural influence of religious values on economic development.
难度 进阶 · 适合 小学高段(9-12)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-03
来源 · Source
马克斯·韦伯《新教伦理与资本主义精神》（1905）
Max Weber, “The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism” (1905)
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 OPENLIBRARY 标识 /works/OL39609763W：Protestant Ethic and t
#马克斯·韦伯 #新教伦理 #资本主义精神
为什么青少年容易受同伴影响？
Why are teenagers easily influenced by peers?
青春期大脑奖赏中枢活跃、渴望被同伴接纳，加上独立意识增强，使青少年更看重朋友看法，因而容易受同伴影响。
In adolescence the brain's reward centers are active and the need for peer acceptance is strong, while independence grows, so teenagers weigh friends' opinions heavily and are easily influenced.
难度 进阶 · 适合 小学高段(9-12)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#青少年 #同伴 #影响
什么是社会分层？
What is social stratification?
社会分层指社会成员按财富、权力、声望等维度形成的等级化排列，常见形式包括阶级、种姓与等级。
Social stratification is the hierarchical arrangement of people by wealth, power, and prestige, taking forms like class, caste, and estate.
难度 进阶 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#社会分层 #阶级
杜波依斯的「双重意识」刻画了非裔美国人怎样的内心张力？
What inner tension of African Americans does Du Bois's 'double consciousness' capture?
杜波依斯在 1903 年《黑人的灵魂》中提出，非裔美国人常透过「别人的眼光」看自己，既身为美国人又被视为「他者」，在两种身份间拉扯。这一概念成为种族与认同研究的经典起点。
In 'The Souls of Black Folk' (1903), Du Bois wrote that African Americans often see themselves through 'the eyes of others,' torn between being American and being treated as 'the other.' The concept became a classic starting point for studies of race and identity.
难度 进阶 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-03
来源 · Source
Du Bois，《黑人的灵魂》(1903)
Du Bois, 'The Souls of Black Folk' (1903)
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 OPENLIBRARY 标识 /works/OL28577W：The Souls of Black Folk（首
#双重意识 #种族 #认同
为什么现在的家庭规模越来越小，独居的人越来越多？
Why are households getting smaller and more people living alone?
原因是城市化、经济发展和观念转变：大家庭的保障功能逐渐被社会保障和保险替代，女性受教育程度和就业率上升，婚育年龄推迟，人均寿命延长又使老人独居增多。小家庭和独居给了个人更多自由与隐私，但也意味着带娃、养老更多要依赖市场服务和公共制度，家庭内部的代际支持相应减弱。
Urbanization, economic development, and shifting values: extended families lose their safety-net role to social security and insurance, more women pursue education and careers, people marry and have children later, and longer lifespans mean more elderly living alone. Smaller households grant freedom and privacy, but they also push childcare and eldercare toward market services and public institutions while weakening support between generations.
难度 进阶 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 来源待核验 · Source pending review
来源 · Source
出处备注：著录仅给书名，无版次与年份；同一书名常对应多个版次，不臆测具体版本。
《社会学概论》(家庭与人口章)
Introduction to Sociology (family and population chapter)
#家庭变迁 #独居 #人口转型
什么是社会事实（涂尔干）？
What is a social fact (Durkheim)?
社会事实是涂尔干提出的概念，指外在于个人、具有约束力的社会现象，如法律、道德、习俗和制度。他主张用社会事实解释社会事实，而非还原为个人心理。这一思路奠定了实证社会学的方法论基础。
A social fact, proposed by Durkheim, is a social phenomenon external to individuals and exerting constraint, such as laws, morals, customs, and institutions. He urged explaining social facts by other social facts rather than reducing them to individual psychology. This shaped the methodological basis of positivist sociology.
难度 进阶 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#社会事实 #涂尔干 #实证社会学
为什么说“健康”在很大程度上是社会现象而不仅是医疗问题？
Why is health largely a social phenomenon rather than merely a medical issue?
影响健康的最大因素不是医疗可得性，而是收入、教育、职业、住房、环境和社会地位等“健康的社会决定因素”。它们通过慢性压力、生活方式、环境暴露与心理机制塑造疾病模式，形成明显的健康梯度：社会地位越低，预期寿命越短、疾病负担越重。因此促进健康需要教育、劳动、住房和税收政策协同，而非只靠医疗系统。
The biggest determinants of health are not medical access but the social determinants of health—income, education, occupation, housing, environment, and social status. These shape disease patterns through chronic stress, lifestyle, environmental exposure, and psychological mechanisms, producing a clear health gradient: the lower the social position, the shorter life expectancy and the heavier disease burden. Improving health therefore requires coordinated education, labor, housing, and tax policy, not just healthcare.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#健康 #社会决定因素 #健康梯度
“性别角色”是如何在成长过程中被塑造的？它完全由生理决定吗？
How are gender roles shaped during growing up, and are they purely determined by biology?
社会学家区分生理性别（sex）与社会性别（gender）。性别角色主要通过社会化习得：家庭（玩具、衣着、分工示范）、学校（教师期待、教材形象）、同伴与媒体（偶像、影视模板）不断传递“男孩/女孩应该怎样”的规范。不同时代与社会的性别分工差异很大，说明文化因素作用显著；但社会化并非单向强加，个体也会协商、偏离甚至重塑规范。
Sociologists distinguish biological sex from social gender. Gender roles are learned through socialization: family (toys, clothing, modeled division of labor), schools (teacher expectations, curriculum imagery), peers, and media (idols, screen templates) continually transmit norms of “how boys/girls should be.” The great variation in gender divisions across eras and societies shows culture matters greatly; yet socialization is not one-way imposition—individuals also negotiate, deviate from, and reshape norms.
难度 进阶 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-03
来源 · Source
《社会学概论》（社会化与性别一章）
Introduction to Sociology (《社会学概论》, socialization and gender chapter)
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 ISBN 9787040371840（豆瓣书目条目: 社会学概论）
#性别角色 #社会化 #社会性别
什么是初级群体？
What is a primary group?
初级群体是社会学家库利提出的概念，指成员间面对面、情感亲密、关系持久的群体，如家庭、亲密朋友圈。它对人的自我认同和价值观形成影响最深。
The primary group, a concept from sociologist Charles Cooley, is a small group with face-to-face, intimate, enduring ties—such as family and close friends. It most deeply shapes self-identity and values.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#初级群体 #库利 #自我认同
我们并不认识对方，为什么还是愿意与陌生人合作？
Why do we cooperate with strangers we don't know?
因为法律、合同、声誉和制度提供了“可信的承诺”：违约会被追究，口碑差的商家会失去顾客。博弈论研究发现，在重复互动中，“以牙还牙”等策略能维持合作；而现代社会中大量匿名的交易，靠的是对规则和机构的信任，而不只是对某个人的信任。制度让陌生人的合作变得可预期。
Because laws, contracts, reputation, and institutions provide credible commitments: breaches get punished, and untrustworthy businesses lose customers. Game theory shows that in repeated interactions, strategies like tit-for-tat sustain cooperation; and in the anonymous transactions of modern society, we rely on trust in rules and organizations, not merely in individuals. Institutions make cooperation with strangers predictable.
难度 进阶 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 来源待核验 · Source pending review
来源 · Source
出处备注：著录仅给书名，无版次与年份；同一书名常对应多个版次，不臆测具体版本。
《社会学概论》(信任与合作研究)
Introduction to Sociology (trust and cooperation)
#信任 #合作 #社会资本
什么是越轨行为？
What is deviance?
越轨行为是指违反社会公认规范的行为，其界定因时因地而异——某些过去的越轨如今已被接受。社会学家关注越轨如何被定义、被贴上标签以及相应的社会控制机制。
Deviance is behavior that violates socially accepted norms, and what counts as deviant varies by time and place—some past deviance is now accepted. Sociologists study how deviance is defined, labeled, and controlled.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#越轨 #社会规范 #社会控制
什么是社会角色？
What is a social role?
社会角色是与特定社会地位相联系的、被社会期望的行为模式，例如“教师”“父母”或“顾客”。人们在不同情境中扮演多重角色，角色之间可能发生冲突。角色期望有助于社会互动的可预期性。
A social role is the pattern of behavior expected of someone occupying a given social position, such as 'teacher,' 'parent,' or 'customer.' People play multiple roles in different contexts, and roles can sometimes conflict. Role expectations make social interaction more predictable.
难度 进阶 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#社会角色 #地位 #社会互动
什么是集体行为？
What is collective behavior?
集体行为指大量人在相对自发、非制度化的情境下采取的相似行动，如抢购、谣言传播、恐慌与集会。勒庞的群众心理学与斯梅尔塞的“加值理论”都试图解释其成因。
Collective behavior is the relatively spontaneous, unstructured action of many people—panic buying, rumor spread, crowds. Le Bon’s crowd psychology and Smelser’s “value-added” theory both explain its causes.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#集体行为 #群众 #恐慌
什么是偏见与歧视？
What are prejudice and discrimination?
偏见是对某一群体的负面先入为主的看法，歧视则是基于这种看法做出的不公平对待行为，二者都会伤害平等。
Prejudice is a negative preconceived attitude toward a group; discrimination is the unfair treatment that follows from it. Both undermine equality.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#偏见 #歧视 #平等
什么是参照群体？
What is a reference group?
参照群体是个人用以评价自身态度与行为的群体，未必是其所属群体，例如青少年模仿偶像。
A reference group is one used to evaluate one's own attitudes and behavior, not necessarily one a person belongs to, like teens emulating idols.
难度 进阶 · 适合 小学低段(6-8)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#参照群体 #社会化
为什么“降低再犯率”比单纯延长刑期更受当代刑事政策重视？
Why do contemporary criminal-justice policies emphasize reducing recidivism more than simply lengthening sentences?
大量囚犯刑满后重新犯罪（再犯），表明监狱若只“惩罚”而不干预，成本高且效果有限。监狱内的教育、职业培训、心理治疗，以及出狱后的就业与住房支持能显著降低再犯率，也减少未来监狱开支和社会伤害。而单纯加重刑罚的边际威慑作用有限，因此很多国家转向“循证矫正”，依据实证研究配置矫正资源。
Many released prisoners reoffend, showing that imprisonment that only punishes without intervention is costly and limited in effect. In-prison education, vocational training, psychological treatment, and post-release employment and housing support measurably reduce recidivism while cutting future prison costs and social harm. Since harsher sentences have limited marginal deterrent effect, many countries have shifted to “evidence-based corrections” that allocate programs according to empirical research.
难度 进阶 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 来源待核验 · Source pending review
来源 · Source
出处备注：此条未指向带版次的可引用著作（通识性内容、机构文件或未展开的英文书名），本库不提供独立书目出处；如需精确引用，需由编辑补全具体篇目与版次。
UN（联合国毒品和犯罪问题办公室·犯罪预防相关报告）
UN (UNODC reports on crime prevention)
#再犯 #矫正 #循证政策
什么是角色冲突？
What is role conflict?
当一个人同时承担的多重社会角色要求相互矛盾时，便产生角色冲突，例如工作责任与家庭责任相互拉扯。
Role conflict arises when the multiple social roles a person holds at the same time place contradictory demands on them, as when work obligations pull against family responsibilities.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#社会角色 #冲突
为什么人会有从众行为？
Why do people conform?
从众是因为人希望被群体接纳、避免被排斥，也因为在不确定时相信多数人的选择更可能正确。
People conform to be accepted and avoid rejection by the group, and because in uncertain situations they assume the majority is more likely to be right.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#从众 #群体 #心理
为什么大城市里邻居之间常常互不认识？
Why do neighbors in big cities often barely know each other?
因为城市生活节奏快、流动性大，人们早出晚归，社区归属感弱；住宅多为封闭式高楼，缺乏共同交往的空间；朋友圈更多建立在同事、兴趣社群而非地缘上。社会学家称之为“邻里关系弱化”。但社区活动、公共空间设计和邻里互助组织都能重新拉近邻居关系。
City life is fast-paced and mobile: people leave early and return late, neighborhood attachment is weak, housing is often closed high-rises with few shared spaces, and friendships form around work and interest groups rather than proximity. Sociologists call this the weakening of neighborly ties. Community events, better public-space design, and mutual-aid groups can rebuild them.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 来源待核验 · Source pending review
来源 · Source
出处备注：著录仅给书名，无版次与年份；同一书名常对应多个版次，不臆测具体版本。
《社会学概论》(社区研究章)
Introduction to Sociology (community chapter)
#城市社区 #邻里关系 #公共空间
什么是社会距离？
What is social distance?
社会距离描述不同群体之间在交往意愿、亲密程度上的心理或社会远近，常用于研究偏见与族际关系。博加德斯量表即用“是否愿意通婚、做邻居”等测量它。
Social distance describes the psychological or social nearness between groups in willingness to interact, used to study prejudice and inter-ethnic relations. Bogardus’s scale measures it via willingness to marry, neighbor, etc.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#社会距离 #偏见 #族际
为什么家庭结构会发生变化？
Why do family structures change?
经济发展、女性就业机会增加、城市化、法律变化和观念开放，使家庭从大家族趋向核心家庭、单亲或未婚同居等多样形态。
Economic development, more women working, urbanization, legal change, and shifting values have moved families from extended clans toward nuclear, single-parent, or cohabiting forms.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#家庭 #结构变迁 #社会
什么是社会网络？
What is a social network?
社会网络由个体（节点）及其相互关系（连线）构成，用来分析信息、资源与影响的传播路径。强弱关系、桥接与社群结构都是其研究重点。社会网络分析已广泛用于组织、健康与舆论研究。
A social network consists of individuals (nodes) and their relationships (ties), used to analyze how information, resources, and influence travel. Strong/weak ties, bridging, and community structure are key topics. Social network analysis is widely used in organizations, health, and opinion research.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#社会网络 #关系 #传播
什么是“社会分层”？社会学通常用哪些维度衡量？
What is “social stratification,” and what dimensions do sociologists commonly use to measure it?
社会分层指社会中稀缺资源（财富、权力、声望）在群体间不平等分配并往往代际传递的结构。社会学通常用阶级/收入、教育程度和职业地位等维度来衡量分层。
Social stratification refers to the structured, often inherited unequal distribution of scarce resources—wealth, power, and prestige—among groups in a society. Sociologists commonly measure it through class/income, education, and occupational status.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-03
来源 · Source
韦伯《经济与社会》（Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft）；赖特·米尔斯《权力精英》
Weber, “Economy and Society”; C. Wright Mills, “The Power Elite”
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 OPENLIBRARY 标识 /works/OL20157300W：Economy and Society（首版
#社会分层 #阶级 #社会不平等
托马斯定理（「情境定义」）想说明主观认定怎样变成客观后果？
What does the Thomas theorem ('definition of the situation') say about how subjective beliefs become real consequences?
托马斯夫妇在 1928 年提出：如果人们把某种情境定义为真实的，那么它在后果上就是真实的。该定理揭示「社会建构」的力量——谣言、标签或偏见一旦被广泛相信，就会引发真实的社会行为改变。
Thomas and Thomas argued in 1928 that if people define a situation as real, it is real in its consequences. The theorem reveals the power of social construction: rumors, labels, or prejudice, once widely believed, trigger genuine changes in social behavior.
难度 进阶 · 适合 高中(15-18)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-03
来源 · Source
Thomas & Thomas，《美国儿童》(1928)
Thomas & Thomas, 'The Child in America' (1928)
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 OPENLIBRARY 标识 /works/OL3739154W：The child in America（首版
#托马斯定理 #情境定义 #社会建构
什么是乡村的“空心化”?它如何改变了农村的家庭结构与代际关系?
What is rural 'hollowing-out', and how has it transformed family structure and intergenerational relations in the countryside?
空心化指青壮年长期外出务工,导致村庄常住人口锐减、宅基地闲置与公共服务萎缩的现象。家庭随之呈现半工半耕格局:老人留村务农,青年进城务工,儿童多由祖辈照料,亲子纽带被拉长为跨地域的远程维系。婚姻与养老安排日益货币化,彩礼攀升和传统养儿防老机制的松动成为普遍后果。
'Hollowing-out' refers to the sharp decline of village populations when working-age adults migrate for urban jobs, leaving idle homesteads and shrinking public services. Families reorganize around a half-work, half-farm arrangement: elders farm at home, youth earn wages away, and grandparents raise left-behind children, stretching parent-child bonds across long distances. Marriage and eldercare become monetized, visible in soaring bride-prices and the loosening of traditional family-based support for the aged.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-02
来源 · Source
贺雪峰:《新乡土中国》(修订版),北京大学出版社,2013 ; 另见: Ye Jingzhong & Pan Lu, Differentiated childhoods: impacts of rural labor migration on left-behind children in China, The Journal of Peasant Studies 38(2), 2011
Ye Jingzhong & Pan Lu, Differentiated childhoods: impacts of rural labor migration on left-behind children in China, The Journal of Peasant Studies 38(2), 2011 ; see also: 贺雪峰:《新乡土中国》(修订版),北京大学出版社,2013
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 CROSSREF 标识 10.1080/03066150.2011.559012：Differentiated
#乡村空心化 #代际关系
费孝通提出的“差序格局”怎样解释中国乡村社会的关系结构?
How does Fei Xiaotong's concept of the differential mode of association explain relational structure in rural China?
费孝通在《乡土中国》中以石子入水激起波纹作比,指出中国乡村的关系以己为中心、按亲疏远近层层外推,形成“差序格局”,有别于西方界限分明的团体格局。在这一结构里,道德义务与资源分配随关系远近伸缩,人情与面子成为促成合作的关键机制。该概念至今仍广泛用于分析乡村互助网络、家族企业运作与基层治理逻辑。
In From the Soil, Fei Xiaotong likened rural China's ties to ripples spreading from a stone dropped in water: relations radiate outward from the self in order of closeness, forming a differential mode of association that contrasts with the bounded group patterns of Western societies. Within this structure, moral obligation and resource allocation expand or contract with relational distance, so renqing (reciprocal favors) and mianzi (face) become crucial mechanisms for cooperation. The concept still guides analyses of rural mutual aid, family firm operations, and grassroots governance.
难度 进阶 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-10-03 · 2 条独立证据
来源 · Source
费孝通《乡土中国》,上海观察社,1948年初版;英译本 From the Soil, University of California Press, 1992年。
Fei Xiaotong, From the Soil: The Foundations of Chinese Society, University of California Press, 1992 (Chinese original, Shanghai Observer Press, 1948).
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 2 OPENLIBRARY 标识 /works/OL4104176W：From the soil, the foun
#差序格局 #乡土社会
医疗化是怎样把日常困扰重新定义为需要治疗的疾病的?
How does medicalization redefine everyday troubles as diseases requiring treatment?
康拉德把医疗化界定为将人类问题划归医学议题、纳入医生管辖的过程,典型如害羞被改写为社交焦虑障碍。其推动力已从医生的职业扩张转向制药公司、患者团体与保险制度的合力。这一进程带来治疗资源的同时,也使许多原本属于生活常态的体验被病理化。
Peter Conrad defined medicalization as the process by which human problems are framed as medical issues and brought under physician jurisdiction, with shyness recast as social anxiety disorder as the classic case. Its engine has shifted from professional expansion toward pharmaceutical companies, patient groups, and insurance systems acting together. While the process delivers therapeutic resources, it also pathologizes experiences once considered ordinary life.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-03
来源 · Source
彼得·康拉德《社会的医疗化》(2007);康拉德《医疗化与社会控制》,《健康与社会行为杂志》(1992)
Peter Conrad, The Medicalization of Society (2007); Peter Conrad, Medicalization and Social Control, Journal of Health and Social Behavior (1992)
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 CROSSREF 标识 10.56021/9780801885846：The Medicalization of
#医疗化 #病理化
性别社会学中的“做性别”（doing gender）是什么意思？它与把性别看作先天属性的看法有何不同？
What does “doing gender” mean in the sociology of gender, and how does it differ from viewing gender as an innate attribute?
韦斯特和齐默尔曼提出，性别并非个人与生俱来的固定属性，而是在日常互动中被不断“做出”的成就。人们按照社会对其生理性别的规范期待来安排言行——穿着、声调、姿态、分工等——并对偏离这些期待负责，一旦“出格”便会遭到纠正。正是这种持续的责任追究反复再生产出性别差异与不平等，使人为建构的性别看起来像自然而然的事实。
West and Zimmerman argue that gender is not an innate attribute people possess but an accomplishment continually produced through everyday interaction. Individuals arrange their conduct—dress, voice, posture, division of tasks—according to normative expectations tied to their sex category, and are held accountable when they deviate. Because such accountability constantly recreates difference, gender appears natural while remaining socially sustained, and inequality is reproduced through routine conduct itself.
难度 进阶 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-04
来源 · Source
坎迪丝·韦斯特、唐·齐默尔曼：《做性别》；West & Zimmerman,《Doing Gender》,Gender & Society,1987 (DOI: 10.1177/0891243287001002002)
West & Zimmerman, 'Doing Gender', Gender & Society, 1987, DOI: 10.1177/0891243287001002002
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 Crossref DOI 10.1177/0891243287001002002
#性别社会学 #做性别 #性别建构
什么是社会资本？
What is social capital?
社会资本指人际关系网络、信任与规范所带来的资源与协作能力。
Social capital is the value derived from networks, trust, and norms that enable cooperation and mutual benefit.
难度 入门 · 适合 幼儿(3-6)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#社会资本 #信任
库利的「镜中我」理论认为自我是如何从别人眼中形成的？
How does Cooley's 'looking-glass self' explain how the self forms from others' views?
库利在 1902 年提出，人的自我像照镜子：我们先想象自己在别人眼中的样子，再揣测别人的评价，最后据此形成自尊与认同。它说明「自我」不是天生孤立的，而是在社会互动里慢慢长出来的。
Cooley proposed in 1902 that the self is like a mirror: we imagine how we appear to others, guess their judgment, and then build our self-esteem and identity from that. It shows the self is not innate and isolated but grows out of social interaction.
难度 入门 · 适合 初中(12-15)
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-03
来源 · Source
Cooley，《人性与社会秩序》(1902)
Cooley, 'Human Nature and the Social Order' (1902)
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 OPENLIBRARY 标识 /works/OL1775029W：Human nature and the so
#镜中我 #自我 #社会互动
什么是“文化”？
What is “culture”?
文化是一个群体共享的价值观、信仰、习俗、语言和物质产物，通过社会化代代相传。它塑造人们的行为方式，使不同社会呈现出独特的生活方式。
Culture is the shared values, beliefs, customs, language, and material products of a group, transmitted across generations through socialization. It shapes people’s behavior and gives different societies their distinct ways of life.
难度 入门 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-03
来源 · Source
泰勒《原始文化》（Tylor, Primitive Culture, 1871）；联合国教科文组织（UNESCO）
Edward Tylor, “Primitive Culture” (1871); UNESCO
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 OPENLIBRARY 标识 /works/OL6908852W：Primitive culture（首版 18
#文化 #社会化 #价值观
什么是文化规范？
What are cultural norms?
文化规范是一个群体约定俗成的行为准则，包括习俗、禁忌与法律，引导成员如何行动。
Cultural norms are shared rules of behavior—customs, taboos, laws—that guide how group members act.
难度 入门 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#规范 #文化
什么是社会群体？
What is a social group?
社会群体是两人及以上、彼此认同并持续互动的一群人，如家庭、班级、球队。它与只是碰巧同处的“聚合体”（如电梯里的乘客）不同，群体内部有共同规范与身份。
A social group is two or more people who identify with one another and interact regularly—family, class, team. Unlike a mere aggregate (elevator passengers), a group has shared norms and identity.
难度 入门 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#社会群体 #互动 #认同
什么是性别角色？
What is a gender role?
性别角色是特定社会文化对“男性”“女性”应有的行为、气质和分工的期待，如“男主外、女主内”。它随时代和地域变化，并非由生理决定。
Gender roles are a culture’s expectations about how men and women should behave, feel, and divide labor—such as “men earn, women care.” They vary across time and place and are not fixed by biology.
难度 入门 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 来源待核验 · Source pending review
来源 · Source
出处备注：此条未指向带版次的可引用著作（通识性内容、机构文件或未展开的英文书名），本库不提供独立书目出处；如需精确引用，需由编辑补全具体篇目与版次。
联合国妇女署（UN Women）
UN Women
#性别角色 #社会期待 #文化
什么是同侪压力？
What is peer pressure?
同侪压力指个体因渴望被同伴接纳而顺从群体态度或行为的现象，在青少年中尤为明显。它既能促使人向善，也可能诱导冒险或从众。
Peer pressure is the push to conform to a group’s attitudes or behaviors to gain acceptance, especially strong in adolescence. It can encourage good conduct or prompt risky, conformist behavior.
难度 入门 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-11-03
来源 · Source
Asch（1955）《Scientific American》从众研究；Asch（1951）群体压力与判断修正实验报告
Asch (1955), Scientific American, Opinions and social pressure; Asch (1951), Effects of group pressure upon the modification and distortion of judgments
独立核验依据 · Independent verification: 核验依据 1 OPENLIBRARY 标识 /works/OL13076972W：Opinions and social pr
#同侪压力 #从众 #青少年
什么是社会学？
What is sociology?
社会学是研究社会结构、社会关系和社会行为的一门学科，关注个人如何在群体中互动以及社会如何运行。它探讨家庭、教育、阶层、文化等主题。奥古斯特·孔德等人被视为社会学的早期奠基者。
Sociology is the study of social structures, relationships, and behavior, focusing on how individuals interact in groups and how society operates. It examines topics like family, education, class, and culture. Thinkers such as Auguste Comte are regarded as early founders of the discipline.
难度 入门 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#社会学 #社会结构 #社会行为
什么是社会规范？
What are social norms?
社会规范是一个群体中被广泛接受和期望的行为准则，包括习俗、礼仪和禁忌等。它们通过教育、榜样和舆论维持，帮助社会有序运转。违反规范通常会招致批评或排斥，但不一定违法。
Social norms are widely accepted and expected rules of behavior within a group, including customs, etiquette, and taboos. They are maintained through education, example, and public opinion, helping society function orderly. Violating them may bring criticism or exclusion but is not necessarily illegal.
难度 入门 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#社会规范 #习俗 #行为准则
什么是社区？
What is a community?
社区是一群生活在同一地方或拥有共同兴趣、身份的人，他们互相帮助、分享资源，比如小区、学校或同好圈子。
A community is a group of people sharing a place or common interest and identity who help and share with one another, like a neighborhood, school, or hobby group.
难度 入门 · 适合 大众
CC BY 4.0 · 已核验 · Verified 2026-08-23
来源 · Source
Anthony Giddens,《Sociology》Polity Press 多版;中译《社会学》北京大学出版社
A. Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, various editions; Chinese ed. Peking University Press
#社区 #群体 #归属感